History of Islam Rise and Expansion

“How did Islam emerge? How did the divided Arabs, within just few decades, create an empire that conquered Persia and Byzantium? In this video — about the Prophet Muhammad, the first caliphs, the fitnas, and the wars for faith and power.”" The Arabs, inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula, lived in state of disunity for long time. In the pre-Islamic era, powerful — and sometimes semi-mythical — kingdoms arose on the peninsula. They left behind remarkable architectural monuments, as well as myths and legends. Among the Arabs, there were many tribes. They were divided into various clans and were constantly at war with one another. In general, Arabs are divided into Bedouins and Fellahin. The former were nomads — ‘Bedouin’ means desert dweller. They traveled from one oasis to another. In contrast, the Fellahin lived settled life and engaged in agriculture in fertile oases. Arabia was also an important trade hub. The famous incense trade route — the trade path connecting India with the Mediterranean — passed through its deserts. Due to their disunity, Arab tribes often became easy prey for neighboring powerful states. They were repeatedly raided by the Persians. Around 570 AD, the Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum attempted to conquer Arabia. The Ethiopians brought war elephants on the campaign, which is why the Arabs called this military expedition the Year of the Elephant. Some Arab tribes came under the rule of their neighbors. The Himyarites became vassals of Ethiopia, the Ghassanids of Byzantium, and the Lakhmids fell under the influence of Sassanid Persia. In addition, various religions influenced Arabia. Christian missionaries came to the region, and Jews, Nestorians, and other refugees who were fleeing persecution in their homelands settled there. In the 7th century, an important turning point in the history of Arabia occurred. Arab tribes began to unite into single state. The impetus for this was the emergence of new religion — Islam. One of the most powerful Arab tribes was the Quraysh. They controlled Mecca, the religious capital of Arab paganism at the time. It was in this tribe that the Prophet Muhammad was born. According to legend, this happened during the Ethiopian invasion. Muhammad was orphaned, so from an early age he was raised by relatives. Until the age of 40, he was engaged in trade. Then, around 610, he began to preach new religion — Islam. Muhammad called for worshiping Allah and opposed the veneration of pagan idols. The religion he founded, Islam, translates from Arabic as “to submit to God,” and Allah means God. Muslims consider Islam continuation of Judaism and Christianity. Even so, during Muhammad’s time, Christians and Jews regarded Islam as just another Christian or Jewish sect. Muhammad had many followers. Nevertheless, the majority of Mecca’s residents opposed the new religion. Therefore, under threat of death, in 622, Muhammad and his followers migrated to the nearby city of Yathrib. This migration went down in history as the Hijrah. Muslims count their calendar from this event. Muhammad also formed political alliances through marriage to strengthen his position. For example, he married his daughter to his cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib. He himself married the daughter of Abu Bakr, member of the influential Banu Taym clan. In Yathrib, Muhammad was supported by the local Arabs and soon came to lead the city. Throughout his rule, Muhammad had conflicts with the local Jewish community due to financial, religious, and political reasons. Muhammad was against usury, while Judaism permitted lending money with interest. The Jews also refused to accept Islam. Additionally, they maintained trade and political alliances with the pagan inhabitants of Mecca, even as the Muslims were at war with them. Because of this, during Muhammad’s rule, the Jews were expelled from Yathrib several times. The war between the Muslims and the pagan Quraysh tribe began with raids and plundering attacks from both sides. Eventually, in 624 AD, one of the Quraysh commanders, Amr ibn Hisham—whom the Muslims nicknamed Abu Jahl for his cruelty and stubbornness—gathered forces against the Muslims. The opposing armies met near the wells of Badr. Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims won the battle. When the Quraysh commander was killed in combat, their forces fled the battlefield. For the Muslims, this victory became sign of divine support. Nonetheless, the Battle of Badr did not end the war. Two years later, another Quraysh commander — Abu Sufyan ibn Harb from the influential Umayyad clan — gathered an army to march on Yathrib. Muhammad’s army met them near Mount Uhud. At first, the advantage was on the Muslims’ side. They rushed to loot the pagans’ camp and lost their battle formation. This was exploited by the commander of the pagan cavalry, Khalid ibn al-Walid, who struck from the flank and defeated the Muslims. Muhammad was wounded in this battle. The pagans did not fully capitalize on their victory and continued to raid Muslim territories. Only in 627, gathering about 10,000 troops from various Arab tribes under the command of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, did they lay siege to Yathrib. To protect the city, Muhammad ordered the digging of large trench around it. This confrontation is known as the Battle of the Trench. The pagans failed to capture Yathrib and retreated. After the siege, the Muslims expelled the last Jews from the city, accusing them of secretly collaborating with the pagans of Mecca. The city itself was renamed al-Medina al-Munawwarah. It is now widely known simply as Medina. Soon, through military campaigns, preaching, and successful diplomacy, Muhammad expanded his authority over neighboring Arab tribes. In 628, the pagans and Muslims concluded truce. Muslims were allowed to visit the Kaaba in Mecca — sanctuary revered by both Muslims and pagans. In 629, conflict broke out between the Muslims and the Christian Arab kingdom of the Ghassanids. After the Ghassanids executed the envoys of the Prophet Muhammad, he sent three thousand warriors against them. Khalid ibn al-Walid, who had recently converted to Islam, also joined the campaign. The Ghassanids were aided by the Byzantines. According to Arab sources, the Byzantine army numbered around 200,000 soldiers, but modern historians estimate it at nearly 10,000. The Muslim forces suffered defeat. Still, Khalid ibn al-Walid took command, organized the retreat, and saved the Arab army from total destruction. At home, the Muslim army was met with disappointment and accused of fleeing the battlefield. Muhammad came to the warriors’ defense. He declared that the soldiers had retreated in order to return, and that it was actually victory, not defeat. For his merits, Muhammad gave Khalid the title Sayf Allah, meaning “the Sword of God.” In 630 CE, the pagan Quraysh violated the truce. In response, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim warriors and marched on Mecca. Abu Sufyan, who controlled the city, realized the hopelessness of the situation. Therefore, he surrendered to Muhammad without fight, converted to Islam, and became one of his closest allies. After this, Muhammad had to fight against an alliance of the Qays tribes, longtime enemies of Mecca. According to legends, he gathered an army larger than anything Arabia had ever seen before. In the Battle of Hunayn, the Muslims emerged victorious, firmly establishing Muhammad’s status as the supreme ruler of Arabia. Soon after, the entire Hejaz and Yemen came under his control. Other tribes, mostly among the Bedouins, also embraced Islam and pledged their allegiance to Muhammad. After the unification of the Arabs, an unexpected problem arose. In Arabia, self-proclaimed prophets began to appear who opposed Muhammad. The most famous among them was Musaylima. Shortly before Muhammad’s death, Musaylima seized the province of Al-Yamama and offered to share power over the Arabs with him. In June 632 AD, Muhammad died, leaving the Muslims with difficult choice about who should lead them next. Some believed that leadership should pass by blood relation, and thus Ali — the prophet’s son-in-law and cousin — should become the leader. Others supported the idea of selecting new leader by election. The supporters of election prevailed. The new leader of the Muslims was Muhammad’s father-in-law, Abu Bakr. He took the title of Caliph, which in Arabic means “successor of the prophet.”The first four caliphs ruled the state traditionally known as the Rashidun Caliphate. Even so, not all Muslims regard these caliphs as rightly guided. At the same time, supporters of hereditary succession began to rally around Ali, believing that he should have been the leader of the Muslims. They did not consider Abu Bakr worthy ruler. But, they did not openly oppose him, hoping that power would eventually pass to Ali peacefully. Abu Bakr faced more serious threat from self-proclaimed prophets, who were joined by the majority of Bedouin tribes that had renounced Islam and returned to paganism. This marked the beginning of the war among the Arabs known in history as the Ridda Wars. Abu Bakr formed 11 armies and sent them against the rebellious tribes. In this campaign, Khalid ibn al-Walid distinguished himself again. He achieved the greatest victories for the Muslims, and in the Battle of Yamama, he defeated the army of the self-proclaimed prophet Musaylima. Within year, all the rebellious tribes returned to Islam. When the Arabs united under the banner of shared faith, they gathered enough strength for military conquests. The ideological foundation of these campaigns was jihad — holy war in the name of Islam. In general, Islamic tradition recognizes several types of jihad: The Greater Jihad is the struggle against one's sins; Jihad by the tongue refers to spreading the faith through words and preaching; Jihad of wealth means providing material support to Islam, among others. The most well-known form became Jihad by the sword — armed struggle against non-Muslims. Jihad by the sword had both religious and material foundations: the spoils of war enriched the Arab tribes. Those who died in these wars were considered shahids — martyrs for the faith — which elevated their status within the community. The first to face the Arab attacks was Sasanian Persia. Until recently, it had been powerful empire engaged in prolonged war with neighboring Byzantium. All the same, ongoing internal political and religious strife had weakened Persia’s might. In 633, Arab forces under the command of Khalid ibn al-Walid invaded its territory. The Muslim commander once again demonstrated his military talent: thanks to the greater maneuverability of his troops, he successfully defeated the Persian army in several battles and conquered Mesopotamia. The Arabs called these lands Iraq, meaning "shore" or "edge." year later, Abu Bakr sent Arab troops against Byzantium as well. Initially, they did not achieve significant success. However, when Khalid ibn al-Walid joined the campaign, the Arabs won several victories. The decisive moment came at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, which lasted six days and ended in crushing defeat for the Byzantines. They suffered catastrophic losses and were forced to abandon Syria. Soon, new caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, joined the campaign. He was appointed as Abu Bakr’s successor in 634, shortly before Abu Bakr's death. Umar arrived in Palestine with an army and laid siege to Jerusalem. The city surrendered only after two years, in exchange for the Muslims’ promise not to persecute Christians and not to destroy their holy sites. In 638, the Byzantines attempted to regain the lost territories. Their troops reached Emesa (modern-day Homs), but failed to capture the city. After brief siege, they retreated in the face of the numerically superior Arab forces. By 639, the Muslims had taken control of all Palestine, and an Arab army led by Amr ibn al-As, figure close to the Umayyad clan, invaded Egypt. In the Battle of Heliopolis, Amr defeated the local Byzantine forces, and within two years, he had conquered all of Egypt. From there, he launched campaign into Cyrenaica (eastern Libya). Meanwhile, the war with the Persians continued. Since their best forces had already been defeated, the Persians were no longer able to resist effectively. Arab forces began conquering the Iranian Plateau. They seized land, spoils, and slaves. One of these captives, slave named Firuz, assassinated Caliph Umar in 644 while he was praying. The conquests greatly enriched the Arabs. Most importantly, they gained access to fertile lands along major rivers Arab farmers, known as fellahin, began resettling there almost immediately. They mostly founded new cities, which became centers of Arab culture in the conquered lands: Fustat (modern Cairo, the capital of Egypt), Kufa in Iraq, and Shiraz, which was rebuilt by Arabs in Persia. In some cases, they settled in existing cities. Soon, Damascus in Syria became an Arab city, as did Philadelphia, which the Arabs renamed Amman. "Political and military power belonged to the Arabs. In addition, they actively adopted local knowledge by translating ancient Greek and Persian books into Arabic. Over time, Arabic became the dominant language in these regions, and Arab culture became the culture of the elite. In the lands conquered by the Arabs lived Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. The Arabs allowed them to freely practice their religions, but in return, they had to pay an additional tax — the jizya. In fact, jizya existed among the Arabs even before Islam: weaker tribes paid it to stronger ones in exchange for military protection. Initially, there was no standardized amount for the tax. Later, the jizya ranged from 1 to 4 gold dinars per year, depending on one’s income. Many controversial stories are connected to this tax. There were instances when Arab officials collected jizya even from Muslims, although this was not allowed. Sometimes, the tax was returned. For example, during the conquest of Syria, the commander Abu Ubayda had to retreat because Byzantine forces outnumbered his own. Before withdrawing, he returned the collected jizya to the local Christians. He explained his decision simply: if Muslims could not provide protection for these lands, they had no right to take tax from their inhabitants. Under Arab influence, local populations gradually assimilated. Islam spread, and soon the majority of Persians adopted the new faith, while preserving their culture. In contrast, Greeks, upon converting to Islam, gradually lost their own culture, which remained only among Greek Christians. "After Umar’s death, the new caliph became Uthman ibn Affan, the son-in-law of Muhammad, from the Umayyad clan. Arab conquests continued. In 646, the governor of Syria, Muawiyah, took Tripoli. He built fleet, with which he captured Cyprus and Rhodes in 649. By 651, the Arabs had fully conquered Persia. The new caliph also played significant role in the religious sphere: during his reign, the final text of the Quran, the holy book of Muslims, was compiled and standardized. At the same time, political conflicts arose among the Arabs. Supporters of Ali accused Uthman and his clan of corruption and monopolizing key positions in the Caliphate. In 656, opponents of Uthman attacked his house and killed the caliph. Ali's role in the attack remains unclear to this day. Even contemporaries gave conflicting reports on whether or not he was involved in Uthman's assassination. Still, Ali was chosen as the new caliph after Uthman’s death. He moved the capital from Arabia to the conquered territories, to the city of Kufa, where he had the strongest support. Ali did not fulfill his promise to punish Uthman's killers, hoping to avoid civil war. Opposition to Ali was led by Aisha, the daughter of the first caliph Abu Bakr and the widow of Muhammad. An army gathered around her. They quickly took control of Arabia and invaded Iraq. Thus began the First Fitna — the first civil war in Islamic history (fitna meaning “temptation,” “trial,” or “discord”). Ali led his troops against Aisha, and the two armies met near Basra. This battle went down in history as the Battle of the Camel, because Aisha commanded the army from howdah on camel in the center of the camp. She lost the battle and was placed under house arrest. Nevertheless, this victory did not bring Ali lasting success: the war was only escalating and threatened new conflicts. The governor of Syria, Muawiyah, also belonged to the Umayyad clan, like Uthman. He was the son of Abu Sufyan, the military leader who had once defeated Muhammad but later converted to Islam. Muawiyah also demanded that Uthman’s killers be punished, but Ali dismissed him from his post as governor. In response, Muawiyah rebelled, allying himself with Amr ibn al-As, the former governor of Egypt. Together, they marched against Ali. The two sides met at the Battle of Siffin, which ended without decisive victory. "As result, both parties agreed to arbitration, which was to resolve not only the conflict between Ali and Muawiyah but also determine the legitimate ruler of the Caliphate. However, this decision enraged the most radical supporters of Ali — the Kharijites. They rebelled, but were defeated by Ali at the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. In an effort to end the civil war, the Kharijites organized assassination attempts on both Ali and Muawiyah. In 661, Ali was killed by Kharijite. The attempt on Muawiyah’s life failed. After Ali’s death, his supporters, the “Ash-Shi’a-Ali”, began to form separate branch of Islam — Shiism. They believed that power should belong exclusively to the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad through Ali. Thus, they chose Ali’s son, Hasan ibn Ali, as their leader. Other Muslims, known as Sunnis, continued to follow the established norms of the Caliphate, explaining that they adhere to the rules set out in the Sunnah. This religious split in Islam continues to this day. Though, Muawiyah managed to prevent the Arab state from breaking apart. Even when Hasan gathered troops against him, he quickly abandoned the idea of conflict because part of his army switched sides to Muawiyah. The Sunnis believed the troops did not want another civil war. At the same time, the Shiites accused Muawiyah of bribing Hasan’s commanders. Hasan ibn Ali recognized Muawiyah as the new caliph, on the condition of having the right to participate in the election of the next caliph. He also agreed to help Muawiyah fight the Kharijites — radicals who did not recognize his authority. In exchange, Hasan received significant financial reward. After that, he settled in Medina, left politics, and focused on religion. For the Shiites, he remained the supreme Imam, the religious leader. Muawiyah held all power in the Caliphate. His clan, the Umayyads, maintained it for the next 90 years. To strengthen his position, Muawiyah moved the capital to Damascus, where the most loyal Arab clans lived. He created personal guard, the Haras, made up of mercenaries. He also formed standing army of Arabs from Syria, known in history as Ahl ash-Sham. Furthermore, Muawiyah appointed some of Ali’s former allies to high positions. In 670, Hasan ibn Ali was poisoned. The Shiites blamed Muawiyah but did not rebel, instead continuing to wait for divine providence to punish the Umayyad clan. Muawiyah conducted an active military policy, mainly against the Byzantine Empire. His most famous campaign was the siege of Constantinople from 674–678. The Arab fleet took control of the Marmara Sea and blockaded the Byzantine capital. Nevertheless, the Byzantines defended the city using Greek fire. In 676, Muawiyah declared his son, Yazid, as his successor. Upon Muawiyah’s death in 680, Yazid became the new caliph. Thus, the Umayyad clan consolidated its power, and two dynasties from this clan — the Sufyanids and the Marwanids — ruled as ordinary monarchs. Not all Arabs recognized Yazid as the new caliph. Among the first to oppose him was the Shiite imam Husayn — Ali’s second son. He gathered about hundred supporters and headed to Iraq, where most Shiites lived at the time. Nonetheless, near the city of Karbala, his forces were stopped by troops loyal to the Umayyads. The Shiite imam Husayn was killed. Abdallah ibn az-Zubayr, the grandson of the first caliph Abu Bakr, actively criticized Yazid for Husayn’s murder. Additionally, Yazid was accused of drunkenness, gambling, and debauchery. According to legend, in response to these accusations, Yazid sent Abdallah silver chain as hint of bribery or arrest. Later, the caliph did order his troops to detain Abdallah in Mecca. But the townspeople supported Abdallah and defeated Yazid’s detachment. Abdallah then began to gather his own army and prepare for war, known in history as the Second Fitna. In 683, Abdallah ibn az-Zubayr was supported by most tribes of Arabia. He declared himself caliph, and the Muslims’ holy city, Mecca, became the capital of the caliphate. Meanwhile, the Kharijites — radical sect in Islam — became more active. Their troops captured parts of Arabia and Persia. At first, they supported Abdallah, but soon conflict arose between them, and the sides took up arms. Later, the Kharijites split into two separate armies. Caliph Yazid sent troops to Arabia. In the Battle of al-Harrah, they defeated Ibn az-Zubayr’s forces. On the way, they plundered Medina, besieged Mecca, and partially destroyed the Kaaba. Abdallah was losing the war. Everything changed with the unexpected death of Yazid. The Umayyad troops returned to Syria. In Damascus, Yazid’s son, Muawiyah II, was proclaimed the new caliph. Yet, he was seriously ill and died after two months After that, struggle for power began within the Umayyad clan among several contenders. The situation of the Umayyads worsened when most Arab governors supported Caliph Abdallah, hoping for his victory in the power struggle. At this critical moment, the clan was led by the former governor of the caliph in Medina, Marwan. He gathered his troops and defeated the Umayyad forces that had switched to Abdallah’s side After his victory, Marwan established control over Syria. Having secured the region, he soon extended his rule over Egypt by bribing local officials. The following year, his troops defeated the rebellious Tawwabin This Shiite army had planned to avenge the Umayyads for the murder of Imam Husayn. Meanwhile, Abdallah ibn az-Zubayr’s situation began to deteriorate. In Iraq, his troops showed excessive cruelty. Local Shiites, led by Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, revolted against them. Mukhtar was not from the Prophet’s family, which, according to most Shiite beliefs, excluded his right to spiritual leadership. Therefore, Mukhtar declared that he acted on behalf of another son of Ali, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, whom he proclaimed the new supreme Imam. This step split the Shiites. At that time, most Shiites recognized Ali ibn Hasan, who lived in Medina, as their Imam. The proclamation of new Imam without the consent of the Shiite community provoked the formation of separate sect known as the Kaysaniyya. This split was the first of many that would repeatedly occur among the Shiites over the following centuries. The Umayyads decided to take advantage of Mukhtar’s rebellion. Their new caliph, Marwan’s son, Abd al-Malik, sent troops to Iraq in 686. Though, in the Battle of Khazir River, they were defeated by Mukhtar. year later, Caliph Abdallah himself sent troops against Mukhtar. In two battles, Mukhtar was defeated. He died during the siege of Kufa. Iraq once again fell under the control of Abdallah ibn az-Zubayr. However, as before, his troops resorted to terrorizing the local population. This sparked wave of uprisings against Caliph Abdallah. The rebels were secretly supported by Umayyad forces. Eventually, in 691, Abd al-Malik invaded Iraq. The decisive battle took place at Maskin, where Abd al-Malik was victorious. On the eve of the battle, he bribed significant part of his enemy’s army. Iraq definitively came under Umayyad control. In 692, Umayyad troops, led by Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, invaded Arabia. First, they captured key cities in the Hejaz and Yemen, cutting off all routes of retreat for Abdallah ibn az-Zubayr from Mecca. After that, they besieged Mecca itself. As nine years earlier, during the fighting, the recently restored Kaaba was damaged again. The siege lasted seven months. The exhausted residents of Mecca were ready to surrender. Then Ibn az-Zubayr, with his most loyal troops, confronted the Umayyad forces. He was killed in battle near the ruins of the Kaaba. Arabia finally came under the control of the Umayyads, the caliphs from Damascus. Despite their victory, the Umayyads still had to fight the Kharijite armies for long time. The Kharijites were finally defeated only in 697. But, the year of Abdallah ibn az-Zubayr’s death became symbolic end of the Second Fitna known in Arab history as the Year of Unity. It marked the restoration of the political unity of the Caliphate under Umayyad rule. "If the First Fitna marked the beginning of the Sunni-Shiite split, the Second Fitna definitively cemented it. After these events, the Shiites withdrew from politics for almost two centuries and focused on religion. Meanwhile, the Second Fitna established the Umayyads’ power. They fully consolidated the Caliphate. The Muslims faced century of rule by new dynasty and Golden Age of Arab history.