History of the Islamic Conquests Human Voiced No Ads

It is the early 7th century and the world of the Near East was dominated by two mighty empires. The Byzantine Empire in the west and the Cisanian Persian Empire in the east. Between them lay Arabia, vast desert peninsula considered backwater by its powerful neighbors. No one at the imperial courts of Constantinople or Tessifon could have imagined that within few decades the armies from Arabia would burst forth, conquer the ancient lands and completely upend the balance of power. Yet that is exactly what happened. The rise of Islam and the subsequent conquest by Muhammad and his successors form one of history's most astonishing transformative chapters. How exactly did community of Arab tribes previously disunited and on the fringe of civilization managed to defeat the great powers of the age? That's what we're here to discuss today. the Arab conquests or rather the Islamic conquest in great detail. Welcome to the channel everyone. Good to have you here with me. And as usual, we will just give quick thanks to the supporters on Patreon, those on YouTube memberships, the merch store, and the donators. because that's the reason why this channel remains adfree for its entire library of 900 or so videos, whatever we're up to now. So, thank you to all of those supporters. If you can't afford to support, give us like, comment, subscribe, and that'll help push us out in the algorithm bit more. Helps YouTube become better place. Anyway, with that in mind, let's begin. Before Islam, Arabia did not exist as unified state. Far from it. It was patchwork of rival tribes and clans. Autumn feuding over grazing lands, trade and honor. The two great neighboring empires, the Byzantine and the Persians that we've mentioned, treated the northern Arab tribes as clients or perhaps buffer states, but they largely ignored the interior of Arabia, which lacked central government or significant resources beyond the trade routes. Mecca, city in the Hijaz region, was thriving commercial and religious center, home to the Kaba shrine and ruled by the Kuresh tribe. In the sixth century, Mecca's influence grew through trade caravans, but politically the Arabs remained fragmented with no overarching authority or army that could threaten the imperial powers. This was the world into which Muhammad Ibin Abdullah was born around 570 CE. When Muhammad began preaching new monotheistic faith, i.e. Islam in Mecca in around 610 CE, he met stiff resistance from the Kurayish elite. After decade of persecution, he and his followers immigrated to the oasis town of Medina in 622, an event known as the Hijra, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Now, in Medina, Muhammad assumed leadership of diverse community, forging an alliance between immigrant Muslims from Mecca and the supportive locals in the Medina. Now these two factions were called respectively the Muajiron and the Anshar. He established kind of citystate under constitution often called the constitution of Medina that unified different tribes and religious groups under his governance. This was the first Islamic state, nent polity based on communal faith and law rather than just blood ties. At this stage, Muhammad's aims were primarily survival and the freedom to propagate Islam. However, the conflict with his Kurayish opponents in Mecca quickly escalated into open warfare. The Medina Muslims began raiding Kurayish camp caravans as means of pressure and survival, and the Meccans in turn sought to eliminate Muhammad's community. These clashes would set the stage for Muhammad's military campaigns which though limited to Arabia certainly laid the groundwork for the larger conquest to come. But it is important to note that our knowledge of these events comes from early Muslim historians and biographers. People like Ibin Ishach and Alwakidi who collected oral traditions and reports roughly century after Muhammad's time. Their accounts mix facts with elements of faith and legend, and that requires little bit of critical analysis. Nevertheless, they provide pretty good narrative of how Islam first spread by the sword and by diplomacy in some places across Arabia. So once in Medina, Muhammad did not initially field large army. His followers numbered only couple of hundred. But what they lacked for in size, they certainly made up for in motivation and cohesion. The first major confrontation with the Meccan forces came in 624 at the battle of Bada, location southwest of Medina. You see, in Islamic tradition, Badr stands out as miraculous victory and quite turning point. Muhammad left roughly 313 Muslim fighters, figure often cited in early sources, against much larger Meccan caravan escort of around 1,000. Despite the numerical disadvantage, the Muslims won decisive victory, killing several important Meccan chiefs and taken many prisoners along with it. Father boosted the morale and credibility of the Muslims immensely. It's described almost with awe in sources. Many Muslims believe divine intervention had secured the win. Suppose it's hard to prove that it didn't. Well, the Quran itself in chapter 8 refers to Bagger reminding believers, quote, "You did not slay them, but Allah slew them." emphasizing that victory was bought by God's help, not just mere human skill. Indeed, later accounts claimed that angels fought alongside the Muslims at Bada. From historical perspective, the victory can be attributed to factors like Muhammad's leadership, better strategy, and the very high motivation of his men. news of the unlikely triumph likely spread rapidly among the tribes. And for the first time, the Kuresh of Mecca realized that the Muslims actually posed quite challenge. But the Meccans weren't going to take it lying down. They sought revenge and year later they confronted Muhammad's forces again at the Battle of Uhood in 625. This time the Kurayish bought larger army and even some women came along to urge the troops on. Among them Hind Bint Udba, mechan noble woman. If we got time, we'll talk about her little bit later. In any case, the two sides met near Mount Uhud outside of Medina. Initially, the Muslims gained an advantage, but in dramatic turn, part of Muhammad's army disobeyed orders. group of archers whom Muhammad had positioned on hill to guard the rear abandoned their post way too soon in order to collect booty from the fleeing enemy. Little bit too keen on the looting, I'm afraid. The Meccan cavalry led by the savvy commander Khaled Ibin Al-Wallid who was not even Muslim yet seized this opening and swung behind the Muslims attacking from the rear. What he looked sorry, excuse me, what looked like Muslim victory turned into bitter defeat. Many Muslim fighters were killed and Muhammad himself was wounded in the face. Well, seems like God was not on their side this time. Legends recount how the prophet's uncle Hamza fell in battle and hinned the affforementioned Meccan woman humiliated Hamza's body on the battlefield in vengeance for her family members killed. Well, they all fell at the battle of Badir. And now it was time for little bit of payback, it seems. In any case, the battle of Uhud was sobering lesson for the Muslims. It taught the importance of discipline and showed that victory was not always guaranteed. Muhammad did not achieve decisive win. But the Meccans too failed to destroy the Muslim community outright. Instead of pressing on to sack Medina, the mechan army withdrew after content with having avenged bad. Medina remained intact and Muhammad's position while it was shaken ultimately held firm for the next couple of years. Both sides girded for final contest and that would come in 627 with the battle of the trench also known as the battle of Kandak. Anticipating massive mechan onslaught, Muhammad adopted defensive strategy novel to Arabian warfare. On the advice of Persian disciple, Salman al- Farci, the Muslims dug wide trench around the vulnerable approaches to Medina. When the Meccan led coalition of perhaps 10,000 besieggers arrived, they were stymied by this trench. barrier their cavalry could not easily cross. Skirmishes ensued and the siege dragged on for weeks. Notably, the Mechans had allied with some Medina Jewish tribes internally, hoping to create breach in the city's defenses. But Muhammad managed to prevent effective coordination. In the end, the coalition's resolve broke due to Medina's stout defense, the censions among the attackers, and bit of poor weather. The siege failed, and the coalition forces departed in frustration. The Battle of the Trench was essentially the last attempt by the pagan mechans to destroy Muhammad. After this defensive victory, the balance of power in Western Arabia tipped firmly in Muhammad's favor. One by one, tribes began to align with the Muslims, sensing changing tides. Muhammad's approach to conquest was not purely through force. It combined military action with diplomacy and pragmatic alliances. pivotal example is the treaty of Udabya in 628. Muhammad attempted peaceful pilgrimage to Mecca that year. And although the Kuresh initially barred him, negotiations led to truce. The treaty struck at Huda called for 10-year peace and allowed the Muslims to perform pilgrimage the following year. While some Muslim companions first viewed the terms as unfavorable, since Muhammad agreed to postpone his pilgrimage that year and made concessions, the truth actually proved to be strategic master stroke. It afforded both sides respite during which Islam spread even more rapidly. Many Arab tribes seeing that Muhammad was now in position of diplomatic parody with Mecca entered alliances with him. The treaty also allowed contact and proitizing that bought new converts. Two years later in 6:30, the truce was broken. Not by Muhammad though, by Mecca's allies who attacked tribe allied with the Muslims. Seizing the opportunity, Muhammad marched on Mecca with large force. Tradition says an army of about 10,000. Pretty impressive by Arab standards. Overall, the Meccans largely surrendered without fight. The conquest of Mecca was virtually bloodless, though Muhammad's army entered the city with minimal resistance, and this was remarkable turn of events. The persecuted prophet returned as conqueror to his hometown. However, Muhammad famously declared general amnesty for the Meccans, including many of those who had been his bitter enemies. There was only handful of exceptions. Several individuals who had committed severe crimes or betrayals were initially marked for punishment, but even most of those were eventually pardoned. Maybe everyone was just tired of the fighting. Well, the clemency shown in Mecca helped win few hearts and minds. as signaled that Islam's victory was not tribal revenge, but rather foundation of new order. Muhammad had the pagan idols in the Kaba destroyed, rededicating the sanctuary to the new god, but otherwise, Mecca was treated pretty well. Still, sucks we don't have those statues. well. One Islamic narrative illustrates the spirit of the moment. One of Muhammad's commanders apparently shouted, "Today is the day of slaughter." as the Muslim army approached, implying revenge. But Muhammad promptly took the banner away from him and said, "No, today is the day of mercy." Very lucky for the Meccans, Well, whether or not those exact words were spoken, you could argue about that all day. The core fact is that widespread killing or looting in Mecca did not occur. Many mechans, including leaders like Abu Sufyan, the Kuresh chieftain who had led the opposition to Muhammad, pretty much had no choice but to accept Islam at this point. Some out of genuine conviction and others out of political expediency, let's put it that way. The conquest of Mecca certainly had domino effect, too. In the aftermath, delegations from far-flung tribes came to Medina to meet Muhammad, either to embrace Islam or at least to make peace with the now dominant Muslim state. Islamic historioggraphy refers to 630 to 631 as the year of the delegations when tribe after tribe sent envoys to this new prophet. Through mix of further expeditions and voluntary submissions, the remaining pockets of resistance across the Arabian Peninsula were more or less eliminated. For example, not long after taking Mecca, Muhammad faced the challenge from the Tak tribe in at Taif, excuse me, and from some Beduin Confederates at the battle of Hunain in 6:30. Now at Hudin, an ambush by Beduin archers initially caused panic among the Muslim troops, but Muhammad and his core followers rallied them and turned the tide again securing yet another victory that solidified Muslim control. The fortified city of Taif was then besieged briefly and though it wasn't taken by force immediately, it too submitted and its people embraced Islam within year or so. By 632, the prophet Muhammad had effectively unified most of Arabia under his rule, something that had never been accomplished before in Arabian history. He combined the roles of prophet, political leader, and military commander. At the time of his final pilgrimage to Mecca in 632, tribes from all over Arabia joined in the Islamic rights, symbolizing newfound unity of faith and purpose among peoples who only generation earlier had been in constant conflict with one another. Now we do have to highlight that this unification was as much ideological as it was military. Islam provided cross-tribal identity, one that bound these communities together in way that blood ties could not. The concept of the community of believers seems to have transcended lineage. Also practical beliefs acrewed to those who joined the Islamic polity. They became part of rising state that promised spoils of war, trade advantages and protection. Muhammad in distributing the treasure and negotiating alliances showed pretty good statesmanship. For example, after Hunayin, he gave generous share of the booty to the new mechan converts like Abu Sufyan and his family. gesture meant to reconcile hearts. This mix of idealism and pragmatism characterized Muhammad's conquest in Arabia and set the template of how his successors would deal with the conquered peoples around Arabia. Now, moving forward little bit, in June of 632, just few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad died in Medina after brief illness. His death momentarily threatened to unravel the fragile unity of the new Islamic State. Many tribes pledged loyalty personally to Muhammad, but with him gone. Some questioned why they should obey the authority of Medina. The religion of Islam remained, but the political leadership was in flux. Muhammad left no explicit instructions for succession leading to moment of crisis in the Muslim community. In Medina, factions of the prophet's companions debated who should take charge and ultimately Abu Bakr, close friend of one of his earliest converts, was chosen as the first caiff. Now, Khalifa meaning successor or deputy of the prophet by group of Muslim leaders. Abu Bakr's selection in meeting at the Sakifa Council helped avert an open rupture among the companions, but it was contested and quite delicate affair. He had to quickly assert authority not just in Medina but across Arabia. And this is where things get little bit complicated. You see, Muhammad's death really was turning point. The nent Muslim stage faced an immediate challenge. Many Arab tribes that had submitted to Muhammad's rule now saw an opportunity to break away. Some refused to pay the zakat, the alms tax to Medina, arguing that their loyalty was just Muhammad, not to any successor. Others fell under the sway of new charismatic figures who claimed to be prophets themselves. suppose anyone can claim to be prophet, right? Well, these post Muhammad claimments to the prophecy included individuals like Musai Lima in Yamana, central Arabia, Tullaya in the north, Saja, woman who claimed prophethood and few others. What followed is known as the Ridda wars or the wars of apostasy from 632 to 633. Now the term rea means apostasy or relapse. From the perspective of Medina, these rebels had abandoned Islam or the community's authority. But from the rebel perspective, they might not have seen it as apostasy at all. Some still considered themselves believers in God while rejecting Medina's political control. After all, what's it all about? Is it about belief in God or is it about tax collection? Who can say? In essence, it was series of rebellions though to preserve local autonomy or follow alternate leaders and Abu Bakr's young caliphate had to swiftly quash them if they were going to hope to reassert any unity. Thing is, Abu Bakar was up to the task. He proved to be remarkably firm and resolute. Despite his gentle personal reputation, he declared uncompromisingly that he would fight anyone who differentiated between the prayer, the salah, and the zakat tax. Meaning he would accept nothing less than full submission with Islamic obligations that had been in place under Muhammad. He famously said, "By God, even if they withhold rope of camel that they use to pay in the messenger of God, will fight them for it." Backing him was cadre of experienced Muslim generals. The most famous of whom was Khaled Ibin Arwali, the very same man who had once fought against the Muslims at Uhud, but later converted because one of Islam's greatest excuse me, and became one of Islam's greatest military tacticians. Alied was fearless and earned the nickname Sif Allah, the sword of God in later Islamic writings, which is perhaps the coolest nickname they could have gave him. The sword of God. Yeah, that's pretty cool. Well, the reader wars were fought as series of quick campaigns in different regions of Arabia. the Naj Highlands, the Arabian Gulf Coast, Yemen in the south, and the big central region of Yamama. Well, troops tribes rather were confronted one by one. For example, Tullaya of the Banu Assad tribe in the north central Arabian districts was defeated in battle. Julia survived and interestingly later repented and rejoined Islam. In Oman and Yemen, loyalist commanders brought those areas back under Medina's fold, though not without good bit of effort. See, Yemen had seen violent backlash against Persianapp appointed governor, and the region had yet to be stabilized. The most ferocious campaign came against Mus Lima, the self-proclaimed prophet of Yamama. Mus Lima had gathered considerable following and posed grave threat with his own army. The decisive showdown took place at the battle of Yumama in late 632 or early 633. Khaled Ibin al-Walid led the caiful forces against Musale Lima's men in the plain of Araba in Yamama. The battle was intensely bloody and costly. Musale Lima's fighters according to reports fought tenaciously to defend their prophet as they saw it. You know what? The prophet only has as much power as people believe in him. Think about that. They would have thought that their prophet was just as good as anybody else's. suppose, well, there's probably been thousands and thousands of prophets through history, right? Whoever's left, suppose they're the ones who win the battles. Anyway, early on, the Muslim forces wavered under the ferocity of the enemy. Some units even retreated. At critical moment though, one of Muhammad's former companions, Tabit Ibin reportedly planted the standard firmly and rallied his troops and units of Muhajirun and Ansar reformed their lines. Khaled recognized the problem here and reorganized his army by separating tribal contingents to prevent entire tribal groups from collapsing together. and then he urged them to advance. What followed was brutal hand-to-hand combat. Mus Lima himself was said to wield sword in the thick of battle, and the fighting culminated in what Muslim sources called the garden of death, walled garden where Musel Lima made last stand. Khaled's forces eventually breached this enclosure and Musel Lima was killed allegedly by the spear of Washi man who in an extraordinary twist of fate had only been the very same person who killed Muhammad's uncle Hamza at Uhud and Washi had later converted to Islam and at Yamama he avenged in sense the martyrdom of Hamza by slaying the false prophet Musale Lima. The victory at Yamama came at high cost for the Muslims, though. Many of the prophet's companions perished in this battle. It was not good day for anybody. And then there was large number of those who had memorized the Quran, they were gone, too. In fact, the loss of so many Quran memorizers alarmed the Muslim leadership and became the catalyst for compiling the Quran into written volume to preserve it. project Abu Bakr initiated shortly after Yabahama under the guidance of Muhammad's secretary Zahed Ibin Dabit. Another example of how the battles had both immediate political consequences and longerterm religious implications. Anyway, by 633, Abu Bakr's forces had subdued the revolt and reunified Arabia under the caliphate's authority. What started as tenuous political entity based in Medina was now powerful centralized state encompassing all of the Arabian tribes. The energy that had been spent in internal fighting was now ready to be channeled externally. In fact, even when some of the reader battles were ongoing, Abuakar and his generals were already contemplating raids beyond Arabia's borders. The internal unity achieved through blood and iron provided the launching pad for great wave of conquest that was about to begin. Now, it is worth noting an important historical question here. Were the subsequent conquests beyond Arabia deliberate plan by the Muslim leadership or did they unfold more organically as an extension of tribal warfare dynamic? Well, there's few different perspectives on that. Some scholars suggest that once Arabia was unified, its warrior tribes now bound by Islam and hungry for action and booty naturally turned to the rich lands of the north. kind of outlet thesis where conquest was way to channel the marshall energies of the Arabian tribes, stopping them from fighting each other again. But Avascon was argued that the prophet Muhammad himself had already set the stage for wider war, citing that he had sent expeditions to the Byzantine frontier and had, according to Islamic tradition, even dispatched letters inviting the Byzantine and Persian emperors to accept Islam. Letters which I'm sure were probably returned to send her quite quickly. Whatever the precise motivation, by 633, the Muslim leadership was making moves north. Small Arab raiding parties had already started probing into southern Iraq, Persian territory, and into Syria, Byzantine territory during the Rita war period. These initial raids sometimes met limited resistance and even captured frontier towns, yielding tempting spoils. Sensing the possibilities, Caiff Abu Bakar set in motion two larger invasions. One in the Byzantine Levant, Syria Palestine, and one into the Cisanian Persian domains, Iraq and beyond. And so the great Islamic conquests were really about to kick off. The Byzantine Empire in the early 630s was still reeling from recent war with Persia between 602 and 628. Emperor Heraclus had fought brutal and long war that took heavy toll. Though Heraclus had emerged victorious against the Persians in 628, even recovering Jerusalem and what he believed to be the relic of the true cross. There's probably about hundred relics of the true cross, but that's besides the point. The empire's military and finances were completely exhausted. Moreover, the Levant, greater Syria and Palestine, had only just been restored to Byzantine control after period of Persian occupation. The local populations, many of whom were Christian, but of sex deemed heretical by Constantinople, such as, don't know, the Neestorans, the Monoysites. More on them in different video. Well, they were somewhat alienated from the Byzantine Orthodox establishment. This environment made the Byzantine Levant relatively soft target, though it is important not to overstate the welcome of the invaders, as resistance certainly existed. But internal dissensions and warw weariness definitely left the door slightly open. Perhaps little hand and an index finger coming out to beckon. Come on in. Well, in 633 to 634, Kaiff Abu Bakr dispatched several contingents of Muslim forces into Syria. Notable generals included Amir Ibin Aras, Yazid Ibin Abi Sufyan, Durabil Ibin Hassan, and Abu almost had it. Abu Oda Ibin Aljarah. Excuse me with the Arabic names. Thank you for your patience. And each one of them left separate columns westward from Arabia. Initially, these forces engaged and captured frontier towns in southern Palestine and the Trans Jordan region. The Byzantine local garrisons were taken by surprise by the spread and determination of these Arab forces. Emperor Heraclus, who was based in the region at that time, realized serious threat was developing. By summer of 634, the Byzantines assembled an army to drive the invaders back. It was go time. The first major setpiece battle was the battle of Anadane, fought in July 634 in Palestine. Now, the exact location is debated, but possibly near Bait Gurin in today's Israel. The Muslim forces, combining several of their columns, confronted sizable Byzantine army. It was fierce encounter. Later Muslim chronicers would claim some 90,000 Byzantines were present, likely gross exaggeration, but clearly it was substantial force. The outcome, victory for the Muslims. The region certainly got shock wave from that one. No one really saw it coming. And Anadane demonstrated the Arabs could stand up to the professional Byzantine soldiers in open battle. No one saw it coming. It's after this victory that the caiff's forces truly began to sweep through Palestine and southern Syria. During this period, Khaled Ibin al-Walid made dramatic entrance into the Syrian campaign. Khaled had been fighting in Iraq against the Persians with successors there as well. But Abu Bakr recognizing Khaled's genius ordered him to leave holding force in Iraq and march aid to the Syrian front. Khaled led his men on legendary march across the Syrian desert, taking route thought to be impossible. According to chroniclers, to survive the crossing, Khaled's troops slaughtered some of their camels and drank water stored in the camel's stomachs. In desperate measures that showed their determination, but also resourcefulness. mean, who would have thought of that? Khaled's unexpected arrival in northern Syria gave the Muslim armies unified command and strategic edge. By early 635, the Muslims had captured the key city of Damascus. Now, quickly, Damascus is actually one of the oldest cities in the world, by the way. And well, they put it to siege. Certainly not the first or last siege that Damascus would see. Sources say it lasted several months, though there are few accounts of relatively quick capabitulation. There is actually one famous anecdote from the conquest of Damascus. Apparently, Khaled's forces entered the city by force through one gate, even as another Muslim general, Abu Uba, was peacefully negotiating the city's surrender at different gate. This confusion was resolved by honoring the peace terms. Abu Ubida had agreed to them, and he demonstrated that the early Muslims had sort of willingness to grant protection and relatively lenient terms to cities that surrendered without further resistance. Let's not talk about the ones who didn't surrender without resistance. It's completely different story. Well, the terms generally involved the Hab inhabitants agreeing to pay jiza, which is pole tax on non-Muslims and also karage, land tax in exchange for security and degree of religious freedom. Of course, you had the right not to convert to Islam, but yeah, you would pay through the teeth for that. So, lot of people out of practical concerns thought, well, we just can't afford to not involve ourselves in the new regimes. That's how many people converted. Now in Damascus, as in many other places, the conquerors didn't force the Christian majority to convert, and the churches remained in operation, often alongside the new mosques. Life for civilians continued with surprisingly little disruption. If they accepted the new rulers and paid their taxes, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclus, stunned by these setbacks, prepared grand counterattack. By 636, he mustered imperial forces and the allied Gassinid Arab Christian tribes to take Syria back. The confrontation that ensued was one of the most decisive battles in military history. real turning point, the Battle of Yamuk in August of 636. The Yamok River Valley near today's Syria Jordan border was the site of 6-day battle that pitted the main Byzantine army against the outnumbered Muslim forces under the leadership of Khaled. Early Muslim sources claimed the Byzantines fielded an enormous army. Some accounts say up to 200,000 witches. Probably not quite correct. Modern estimates suggest perhaps 40 to 50,000 Byzantine troops against perhaps 20 to 25,000 Muslims. The battle saw intense fighting with both sides giving no quarter. In one dramatic detail from Arab accounts, the Byzantines allegedly chained some of their infantry together in groups to prevent any cowardly retreat. Sign of their resolve not to yield ground. probably didn't do much for morale if it did happen. Whether it actually occurred is debated, but at least in the Muslim historioggraphy, it became part of the Yamuk legend. Now, as the as for the Muslims, for their part, they fought tenaciously. They were inspired by both faith and the high stakes. Really, it was all on the line at Yammuk. Women in the Muslim camp played role in the spurring on of fighters. In fact, an example cited in Albaladuri's history is the presence of Hindbent Udba, the same woman who had been at Uhur on the opposing side we talked about. Now Muslim, Hint converted after the conquest of Mecca, she reportedly took part at Yammuk, shouting encouragement such as, "Cut down the arms of these uncircumcised ones with your swords." "Okay, then." Well, her fiery exhortations using uncircumcised as derogatory term for the Christian Byzantines, which is probably quite an avantgard insult, isn't it? Well, it gave sense of how vengeful and motivated some of the Muslims were, including those who had once been enemies of Islam. Well, the tide of the battle turned when Khaled executed flanking maneuver and the disciplined Muslim cavalry managed to outsmart the larger Byzantine force. After brutal and chaotic melee, the Byzantine army collapsed in route. Thousands of Byzantine soldiers were killed and many others fled in disarray. Yamuk was catastrophic defeat for Bzantium. Emperor Heraclus had essentially lost Syria in one blow. In later chronicles, it is said that Heraclus had lamented, "Farewell, Syria! What beautiful land you will be for our enemies!" as he retreated. Whether or not he said those exact words, still the sentiment rings true. Byzantine power in the Levant was broken beyond repair. So in the wake of Yamuk, Muslim forces rapidly took control of major cities in Syria and Palestine. Jerusalem, sacred city to Muslims as well as Christians and Jews, negotiated its surrender in 637. The Byzantine garrison in Jerusalem along with the patriarch Sophronius agreed to capitulate on the condition that the Caleb himself come to accept the city. Well, in remarkable historical tableau, Caiff Umar Ibin al-Katab traveled from Arabia to Jerusalem to receive the keys to the city. Early Muslim accounts describe Umar's entry as display of humility and simplicity. He arrived wearing simple coarse garment, reportedly with patches, and riding on camel with only single attendant. There's another charming little anecdote, too, that says Umar and his servant took turns riding the camel on the journey. And thus, Umar walked part of the way, detail that's often used to illustrate his somewhat legendary modesty. When Umar reached Jerusalem, he reportedly refused to pray inside the church of the Holy Sephila, lest future Muslims use that as pretext to convert the church into mosque. Instead, he prayed nearby on the steps, and indeed mosque, the mosque of Umar, was later established adjacent to the church rather than in it. According to the terms of the surrender, sometimes referred to as the pact of Umar, the Christian population of Jerusalem was granted safety for their lives, property, and churches. They just had to pay the Jizia attacks and acknowledge Muslim rule. Sopherronius the patriarch is said to have been gracious in defeat, even reportedly remarking with resigned awe that the Umar's presence in the holy city was the abomination of desolation. reference to Christian scripture indicating the fall of the city to non-Christian rule, yet delivered without apparent bitterness towards Umar personally. Well, these narratives show how the Muslim conquerors often portrayed themselves as liberators or just rulers in contrast to the previous regimes. Is through the many cities saw lighter treatment by agreeing to surrender where cities that resisted could face harsher consequence. Generally though, Byzantine administration was left largely intact in the short term. Local bureaucrats and bishops often stayed in place. now answering to Muslim governors. And here's one other telling episode, one that showcases relatively pragmatic approach of the conquerors and it involves the city of Hims in Syria, at that time called Emso. When Heraclus, before Yammuk had rallied his troops, the Muslim forces in Hims decided to withdraw south to face the Byzantine army. Before leaving Hims, the Muslim governor did something quite unexpected. He refunded the Jizia taxes that had been collected from the inhabitants, saying in effect, "Since we can no longer protect you from the Byzantines, we're giving you your money back." Now, I'm sure you can imagine that that was received with quite bit of gratitude by the people of Hims. In fact, one account relates that the locals prayed for the Muslims victory and remarked that they preferred Muslim justice and governance to the rule of the Byzantines. Statements from the residents of hymns like we like your rule and justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny under which we lived before show why some populations might have seen the Muslims as in relatively positive light. But of course, remember the source for that is an early Muslim historian called Albaladuri. So once again, it could have just been made up. But still, it's worth we mention it. It's not like everyone was, you know, happy with Byzantine rule, but people rarely happy with their governments. Ask Australians about that. Anyway, well, whether these were sentiments were widespread or exaggerated, they surely shore crucial factor in the success of the conquests, the new rulers often imposed lower taxes and allowed surprising degree of religious and communal autonomy under the dema system. Non-Muslims were protected people allowed to practice their faith and govern their community affairs in exchange for the Jiza tax. Of course, they also had to acknowledge the supremacy of Islam. Whether or not that was against their beliefs, well, that's for them to reconcile. In any case, by 638, virtually all of Syria and Palestine was in Muslim hands. Cities like Antioch, Aleppo, and others fell like dominoes in succession. The Byzantines, devastated by the loss, could do little beyond harassing coastal areas with their navy or fortifying the Anatolian frontier to prevent any further incursions. The rugged mountains of Anatolia provided natural barrier that would in fact define the limits of Arab expansion in that direction for long time. Heraclus evacuated his remaining forces and reportedly took the relic of the true cross with him to Constantinople for safekeeping. The Levant, region that had been henistic and then Roman Byzantine for nearly thousand years, was now under new management and would never return to Byzantine control except briefly in the Crusades centuries later, but they didn't hold on to that for very long. Now, it is important to stress that the conquest of the Byzantine lands was not just military phenomenon, but also social and religious revolution. The Muslim armies were initially composed mostly of Arab tribal fighters from Arabia. But as they settled in Syria, there was large-scale migration of Arabs into the fertile cresant. These Arabs now forming an elite military class lived alongside the local population and over generations through combination of conversion and cultural assimilation, the region would become predominantly Arabic in culture and Islamic in their religion. But in the immediate aftermath of the conquest, one should imagine Syria in the 640s as society where thin layer of Muslim Arab warriors ruled over vast majority of non-Muslim subjects. The conquest of Syria was arguably the cornerstone of the early Islamic Empire. Controlling Syria not only provided rich cities and agricultural land, but it also positioned the Muslims next to Egypt, the bread basket of the Mediterranean world. It been like that since ancient times, and it also gave them access to the Mediterranean Sea. To the east, it opened routes into Mesopotamia and Persia. And as we shall see, even as these Syrian campaigns were playing out, the Muslims were simultaneously conducting an equally momentous conquest against the other great power of the day, the Cisanian Persian Empire. While the battles raged on in Syria, another epic war unfolded to the east. The Cissanians, like the Byzantines, had been gravely weakened by decades of war. The last Roman Persian war of 602 to 628 had ravaged Mesopotamia and left the Persian state destabilized and that's to say the least. In the 630s, Persia was experiencing internal chaos too. The emperor Kosro II had been overthrown and killed followed by rapid succession of rulers including for brief period queen called Bordon. By 633 the Persian throne was held by Yazdiger III, young grandson of Costro who had very tenuous control over fractious nobility. The Persian military, especially the once formidable Sabaran, the heavy nightly cavalry had been depleted, and many frontier garrisons were manned by conscripts or local tribal levies. However, we shouldn't assume that the Persians were just going to take it lying down. They still had war elephants, armored cavalry, and proud marshal tradition. The confrontation between the Arabian Muslims and the Persians would prove to be drawn out series of battles, but ultimately, well, you know who wins. The Muslim incursions into Persian territory began under Abu Bakr's initiative around the same time as the first thrust into Syria. In 633, Khaled Ibn Alwalid before being redeployed to Syria, led swift campaign in lower Mesopotamia, which was the western frontier of the Cisanian Empire. He won string of small but significant battles against local Persian forces and their Arab allies. For instance, at the battle of Ulis and others along the Euphrates, Khaled earned fearsome reputation. One battle is grimly named the battle of the chains where the Persian troops supposedly chained themselves together. Now, you might recognize that possibly an apocryphal echo of what was said to happen at Yarmmuk. though. Who knows? Well, another is called the river of blood, as Khaled is said to have executed captives until the canal's waters turned red. By late 633, Khaled had captured the important city of Hia, an old Arab client kingdom seat under Persian Susarenti. Hia's capture signaled that the gateway to the rich lands of the Tigris Euphrates was opening. After Khaled's departure to Syria, the Persian front saw temporary stall. But Abu Bakr's successor, Khif Umar Ibin Katab, who took office in 634 after Abu Bakr's death, was determined to press the offensive against Persia. Under caiff Umar the Muslim campaign when Mesopotamia was reinvigorated Umar appointed Sahed Ibin Ali or say Ibin Abiwakas rather one of Muhammad's prominent companions and himself veteran of Badr and other battles to lead the Persian front. By 636, as Khaled was triumphing at Yarmmug, Sad advanced into Iraq with the large Muslim army, engaging the main Persian forces, which by now were rallying under Emperor Yazdigurd's orders. The climactic encounter in this theater at least was the battle of Al Kadesia 636 or 637 chronologies bit unclear but most places in 636 just weeks or months after Yammuk. Katia was pitched battle fought against the Euphr near the Euphrates in southern Iraq rather and has gone down in history as the battle that broke Cissanian power. Persian sources of the time are pretty scanned, but the Muslim historical accounts, notably by Albari and others, give us quite few descriptions, albeit with their own biases. The Persian army at Katia was led by the famous General Rostam Farukad, veteran commander. They brought war elephants onto the field, which initially caused havoc among the Arab cavalry and horses. The animals were unfamiliar with elephants and panicked at their sight and smell. You can't really blame them. The battle lasted several days and fortunes went back and forth. One day was known as Yaum al- Armath, another as Yaum al- Awath, each with its stories of heroism. On the second day, Arab archers managed to wound some of the elephants and blind them, causing the beast to bolt and trample the Persian ranks. This turned the tide as the Arabs overcame their fear of the elephants. The turning point really came on what Arab sources called the night of Glangor, night of long struggle of attrition. And then the final day when the Muslim army launched decisive attack, Rostam, the Persian general was killed. Accounts say that he was caught by surprise when Muslim fighters infiltrated the Persian camp. He was reportedly killed while trying to flee or possibly he fell into the canal and was dispatched by the Arab soldiers who didn't recognize him at first. With Rosam's death, Persian resistance crumbled. The Persian army after fighting valiantly was routed. Katia's result was momentous. It left the heartland of the Cisanian Empire completely open. And so from 637 onwards, the Muslims pushed north into Mesopotamia, conquering the jewel of the region, Tesson, the imperial capital on the Tigris, just south of today's Baghdad. The Arabs called it Madin, meaning the cities, as it was metropolis of several districts. The Persian royal court had already evacuated by the time the Muslims besieged the city, but its fall yielded enormous treasure. The riches of the Persian palace became legendary in Arab law. There's an off-sighted moment where the Muslims found Kosro's horde of treasures, including fabulous carpet known as the spring of Kosro, which was reportedly sliced into pieces and distributed. Well, despite all of these blows, the Cisanian Empire had not yet been completely conquered. Yazdur fled further east to rally support in Persia proper. The terrain of Iran with its mountains and plateaus allowed the Persians to prolong resistance. Battles continued in the later 630s as Muslim forces slowly but surely moved into what is now Iran. significant engagement was the battle of Jalula around 637 to 38 in the Zagros foothills which cleared the way into the Iranian plateau. But the final crucial pitched battle was at Nahavand in 642. Often dubbed by Muslim historians as the victory of victories at Nahavand in western Persia. The remaining Persian forces made one last concerted attempt to hold the Arab advance. Once again, they failed. Arab sources describe clever tactical faint by the Muslim commander who lured the Persians out of strong defensive position into an ambush. The Persians were decisively defeated. After Nahaband, the organized resistance of the Cissanian state essentially collapsed for good. From 642 onward, the Muslim armies fanned out across Persia, taking city after city. The conquest of the vast Persian Empire was mostly complete by the mid640s, though some remote regions and mountain fortresses took little bit longer. Now, here it is important to highlight the pattern of integration that followed the conquest, as in Syria, the Arabs established garrison towns to station Muslim troops and serve as administrative centers. But they also often co-opted local administrative practices. Many Persian bureaucrats and feudal nobles were retained to help govern the new regime, now paying taxes directly to the caliphate. The Persian populace, mostly Zoroastrian at the time, did not suddenly convert overnight either. In fact, conversions were gradual and took generations with many Persians clinging to Zoroastrianism for quite some time. They're still around today in Iran and they generally get left alone, but most of them fled to India as parties to avoid the Muslim rule. In any case, Persian society was profoundly altered. The old aristocracy was largely dismantled and absorbed. The fire temples of the Zoroastrians eventually gave way to mosques and the Persian language itself absorbed huge influx of Arabic vocabulary, but it later reasserted itself. One could argue that the conquest of Persia was even more culturally transformative than that of Syria or Egypt, which we'll get to in minute, because Persia had been the core of an ancient distinctly nonssemitic civilization. Well, the fact that Persia became Islamized yet retained its language, Farsy that is, and much of its identity was testament to the complex synthesis. But those developments lie further in the future beyond the immediate scope of the 7th century conquest. So even as Syria was being secured and the battles raged in Persia, the Muslims launched another momentous campaign. this time westward into Egypt. Egypt was Byzantine province at the time, having been reconquered by Heraclas from the Persians only decade earlier. The Persians had occupied Egypt from 619 to about 629. But like Syria, Egypt's population, largely Coptic speaking and meapysite Christian in faith, had felt alienated from Cheddonian Orthodox Constantinople. Heavy taxes and religious disputes. The nature of Christ was big theological sticking point had bred resentment among the cops toward the Byzantine rule. Now, this doesn't mean that the Egyptians welcomed invasion, but it does suggest that as in Syria, the conquerors might find locals more resigned than fiercely loyal to the empire. We could put it that way. The invasion of Egypt in 629 was led by Amir Ibin Alas, shrewd Arab general who had already proven himself in the Syrian campaign. According to some accounts, Amir ventured into Egypt with only around 4,000 soldiers initially, suggesting either audacious confidence or an expectation of lot of local support. He soon requested reinforcements and Kaiff Umar after some hesitation sent additional troops bringing the number up to about 8,000. The Muslims entered Egypt from Palestine moving toward the Nile Delta. They faced Byzantine garrisons that were thinly spread and crucially population that was not highly motivated to fight on the emperor's behalf. They first laid siege to Palucium on the eastern frontier and then advanced to capture the important fortified town of Babylon. Now don't confuse that with the Babylon of Mesopotamia. This Babylon was fortress near the head of the Nileon Delta near the location of modern Cairo, the capital of Egypt. The siege of Babylon fortress was pretty tough nut to crack. It lasted about 7 months between 639 and 640. The Byzantine commander in Egypt, Cyrus, who was also the local patriarch known as Al-Muko, Al-mukah Kas in Arab sources, excuse me, negotiated with Amir during the siege, possibly playing for time or considering surrender terms. Either way, the fortress of Babylon fell to the Muslims, which essentially opened up all of Egypt to them. Once the key garrison fell, cities in lower Egypt began surrendering. The Muslim army moved north and took Alexandria, the capital of Egypt at the time in 641. Alexandria with its famous Mediterranean port and legendary heritage. It was the home to that famous library in centuries past, capitulated after some fighting and negotiation. It is said that Alexandria's fall was achieved by agreement. Byzantine forces evacuated the city and the Muslims entered pretty peacefully. Though one late legend of dubious authenticity claims that in the aftermath the great library of Alexandria was finally destroyed by order of the Kaiff Umar. Now that story appears in much later sources and is considered apocryphal by many modern historians. We're pretty sure that the Romans burned down the library and the conflicts and chaos of their battles in those days. Did video about the library of Alexandria while back if you're interested. Well, what is more reliably noted in contemporary sources is that significant portion of the Christian populace, especially those of the Coptic Church, either acquested to or even cooperated with the new rulers. The cops found the Muslims at least somewhat easier to live under than the Greek Orthodox Byzantines, who had often persecuted Coptic religious practices. Byzantine attempts to hold or recapture Egypt were pretty feeble. naval fleet did retake Alexandria for brief time in 645, but the Muslims counteratt attacked. In 646, they expelled the Byzantine forces permanently. From then on, Egypt became stable part of the Islamic caliphate. The speed of Egypt's fall, essentially within two to three years, is astonishing given it had been core Roman territory for over 600. Well, it shows again how decimated Byzantine capacity was at this point. Miraculous himself died in 641. pretty bitter man by most accounts, having seen one province after another slip away to the Arabs. Amir Ibin Aras, now governor, established new city as his headquarters, Fust, which later became Cairo, or as they call it, Alahira, under new dynasty. Fustad grew around mosque that Amir built, the earliest mosque in Africa. Meanwhile, Alexandria, which had been the jewel of Byzantine Egypt, gradually declined in political importance, though it remained important in economic terms. Egypt's conquest, of course, had enormous consequence. Economically, it provided the caliphate with the rich grain supply of the Nile Valley. And indeed, after taking Egypt, the Muslims began shipping Egyptian grain to feed the Hijaz and the growing garrison cities in other parts of the empire. Politically, it opened the way for further expansion westward along North Africa, which would happen in the next decades, eventually reaching Mghreb and crossing into Spain by 7-Eleven. culturally and demographically. Like Syria, Egypt gradually Arabized in the ensuing centuries, though the process was slower. The Coptic language and Christian religion persisted strongly for long time under the Muslim rule, and indeed they survived to this very day in Egypt, albeit they are minority. Nice churches, though. Now one is interesting aspect of the Egyptian campaign is the relatively amicable terms recorded between the conquerors and the local population. document known as the treaty of Babylon or treaty of Miser outlines the surrender terms. It stipulated that the people of Egypt would pay the Jizia tax, set amount per adult male non-Muslim scaled by income, and in return their lives and properties and churches would be protected. Amir Ibin Alaz is sometimes credited with degree of statesmanship in how he handled things in Egypt. He left much of the existing bureaucracy intact, utilizing Coptic officials to continue running day-to-day administration since they had the knowhow of the complex irrigation systems and tax collection, all the important stuff. The transition was thus managed without completely upending the social order for the common people, which probably helped avoid continuous revolts. Now that being said, there were occasional revolts. Some cops did later rebel due to heavy taxation or resentment like they did in the 8th century. But initially the handover was pretty smooth. By 642, the early Islamic Empire, often called the Rashidon Caliphate, ruled by the first four rightly guided caiffs, as they are called, stretched unbelievably far. for state that had not even existed mere 20 years earlier. It now encompassed the entire Arabian Peninsula, all of the former Byzantine Syria, Palestine, all of Persia and Mesopotamia, and all of Byzantine Egypt. Now, think about that. From Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast of Libya in the west to the highlands of Afghanistan in the east, single polity now ruled. This expansion outstripped even the conquest of Alexander the Great in sheer rapidity and in the permanence of its results. The old world was shattered. new empire, the Islamic caliphate built on its ruins. Of course, we can talk about the other calipes, the Umaya Huds and the what happened over in Spain and all the rest and fall of Constantinople, but there's only so much time we have. If you want me to do follow-up, can talk about the later conquests. We'll just have to plan it out and see how we can approach it. But for now, our time together has come to an end. know. Well, that's just the way it is. It's all right. If you want to watch another video, you can. Plenty in the playlist. Maybe you're already asleep. don't know. Whatever. Anyway, like to thank the top tier patrons and supporters. 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