Chapter 28 US History OpenStax Audiobook

US History an Open Stacks textbook read along with the full text at www.ops.org you can find this audiobook anywhere you listen to podcasts including Spotify YouTube Apple podcasts and more chapter 28 post-war prosperity and Cold War fears 1945 to introduction is this tomorrow 1947 comic book highlights one way that the federal government and some Americans revived popular sentiment in opposition to Communism the United States and the Soviet Union allies during World War II had different Visions for the post-war world as Joseph Stalin premier of the Soviet Union tightened his grip on the countries of Eastern Europe Americans began to fear that it was his goal to spread the Communist Revolution throughout the world and make newly independent nations puppets of the Soviet Union to enlist as many Americans as possible in the fight against Soviet domination the US government and purveyors of popular culture churned out propaganda intended to convince average citizens of the dangers posed by the Soviet Union artwork such as the cover of is this tomorrow which depicts Russians attacking Americans including struggling woman and an African-American veteran still wearing his uniform played upon post-war fears of Communism and of future war with the Soviet Union these fears dominated American life and affected foreign policy military strategy urban planning popular culture and the Civil Rights move movement 28.1 the challenges of peacetime learning objectives by the end of this section you will be able to identify the issues that the nation faced during demobilization explain the goals and objectives of the Truman Administration evaluate the actions taken by the US government to address the concerns of returning veterans the decade and half immediately following the end of world War II was one in which middle and workingclass Americans hoped for better life than the one they lived before the war these hopes were tainted by fears of economic hardship as many who experienced the Great Depression feared return to economic decline others clamored for the opportunity to spend the savings they had accumulated through long hours on the job during the war when consumer goods were rarely available African-Americans who had served in the armed forces and worked in the defense industry did not wish to return to normal instead they wanted the same rights and opportunities that other Americans had still other citizens were less concerned with the economy or civil rights instead they looked with suspicion at the Soviet presence in Eastern Europe what would happen now that the United States and the Soviet Union were no longer allies and the other nations that had long helped maintain balance of power were left seriously damaged by the war Harry Truman president for less than year when the war ended was charged with addressing all of these concerns and giving the American people fair deal demobilization and the return to civilian life the most immediate task to be completed after World War II was demobilizing the military and reintegrating the veterans into civilian life in response resp to popular pressure and concerns over the budget the United States sought to demobilize its Armed Forces as quickly as possible many servicemen labeled the Ohio boys over the hill in October threatened to vote Republican if they were not home by Christmas 1946 understandably this placed great deal of pressure on the still inexperienced president to shrink the size of the US military not everyone wanted the government to reduce America's military might however Secretary of the Navy James forestal and Secretary of War Robert Patterson warned Truman in October 1945 that an overly rapid demobilization jeopardized the nation's strategic position in the world while Truman agreed with their assessment he felt powerless to put halt to demobilization in response to mounting political pressure the government reduced the size of the US military from high of 12 million in June 1945 to 1.5 million in June 1947 still more troops than the nation ever had in arms during peacetime Soldiers and Sailors were not the only ones dismissed from Service as the war Drew to close millions of women working the jobs of men who had gone off to fight were dismissed by their employers often because the demand for war material had declined and because government propaganda encouraged them to go home to make way for the returning troops While most women workers surveyed at the end of the war wished to keep their jobs 75 to 90% depending on the study many did in fact leave them nevertheless throughout the late 1940s and the 1950s women continued to make up approximately oneir of the US Labor Force Readjustment to to postwar life was difficult for the returning troops the US Army estimated that as many of 20% of its casualties were psychological although many eagerly awaited their return to civilian status others feared that they would not be able to resume humdrum existence after the experience of fighting on the front lines veterans also worried that they wouldn't find work and that civilian defense workers were better positioned to take advantage of the new jobs opening up in the peacetime economy some felt that their wives and children would not welcome their presence and some children did indeed resent the return of fathers who threatened to disrupt the mother child household those on the home front worried as well doctors warned fiance wives and mothers that soldiers might return with psychological problems that would make them difficult to live with the GI Bill of Rights well before the end of the war Congress had passed one of the most significant and far-reaching pieces of legislation to ease veterans transition into civilian life the serviceman's Readjustment Act also known as the GI bill every honorably discharged veteran who had seen active duty but not necessarily combat was eligible to receive Year's worth of unemployment compensation this provision not only calmed veterans fears regarding their ability to support themselves but it also prevented large numbers of men as well as some women from suddenly entering job market that did not have enough positions for them another way that the GI Bill averted glut in the labor market was by giving returning veterans the opportunity to pursue an education it paid for tuition at college or vocational school and gave them stipend to live on while they completed their studies the result was dramatic increase in the number number of students especially male ones enrolled in American colleges and universities in 1940 only 5.5% of American men had college degree by 1950 that percentage had increased to 7.3% as more than 2 million servicemen took advantage of the benefits offered by the GI bill to complete College the numbers continued to grow throughout the 195 50s upon graduation these men were prepared for skilled blue collar or white collar jobs that paved the way for many to enter the middle class the creation of well-educated skilled labor force helped the US economy as well other benefits offered by the GI Bill included low interest loans to purchase homes or start small businesses however not all veterans were able to take advantage of the GI Bill African-American veterans could use their educational benefits only to attend schools that accepted black students the approximately 9,000 servicemen and women who were dishonorably discharged because they were gay or lesbian were ineligible for GI Bill benefits benefits for some Mexican-American veterans mainly in Texas were also denied or delayed the return of the Japanese While most veterans received assistance to help in their adjustment to postwar life others returned home to an uncertain future without the promise of government Aid to help them resume their pre-war lives Japanese Americans from the West Coast who had been intered during the war also confronted the task of rebuilding their lives in December 1944 Franklin Roosevelt had declared an end to the forced relocation of Japanese Americans and as of January 19 45 they were free to return to their homes in many areas however neighbors clung to their prejudices and denounced those of Japanese descent as disloyal and dangerous these feelings had been worsened by wartime propaganda which often featured horrific accounts of Japanese mistreatment of prisoners and by the statements of Military Officers to the effect that the Japanese were inherently Savage facing such animosity many Japanese American families chose to move elsewhere those who did return often found that in their absence friends and neighbors had sold possessions that had been left with them for safekeeping many homes had been vandalized and Farms destroyed when Japanese Americans reopened their businesses former customers sometimes boycotted them the Fair Deal early in his presidency Truman sought to build on the Promises of Roosevelt's New Deal besides demobilizing the armed forces and preparing for the homecoming of servicemen and women he also had to guide the nation through the process of returning to peacetime economy to this end he proposed an ambitious program of social legislation that included establishing federal minimum wage expanding Social Security and public housing and prohibiting child labor wartime price controls were retained for some items but removed from others like meat in his 1949 inaugural address Truman referred to his programs as the Fair Deal nod to his predecessor's new deal he wanted the Fair Deal to include Americans of color and became the first president to address the National Association for the advancement of colored people and double ACP he also took decisive Ive steps towards extending civil rights to African-Americans by establishing by executive order in December 1946 presidential committee on civil rights to investigate racial discrimination in the United States Truman also desegregated the Armed Forces Again by executive order in July 1948 overriding many objections that the military was no place for social experimentation Congress however which was dominated by Republicans and Southern conservative Democrats refused to pass more radical pieces of legislation such as bill providing for National Health Care the American Medical Association spent some $1.5 million to defeat Truman's Healthcare proposal which it sought to discredit as socialized medicine in order to appeal to Americans fear of Communism the same Congress also refused to make lynching federal crime or outlaw the pole tax that reduced the access of poor Americans to The Ballot Box Congress also rejected bill that would have made Roosevelt's Fair Employment Practices committee which prohibited racial discrimination by companies doing business with the federal government permanent at the same time they passed many conservative pieces of legislation for example the Taft Harley act which limited the power of unions became law despite Truman's veto 28.2 the challenges of Peace time learning objectives by the end of this section you will be able to explain how and why the Cold War emerged in the wake of World War II describe the steps taken by the US government to oppose communist expansion in Europe and Asia discuss the government's efforts to root out communist influences in the United States as World War II Drew to close the alliance that had made the United States and the Soviet Union Partners in their defeat of the Axis powers Germany Italy and Japan began to fall apart both sides realized that their Visions for the future of Europe and the world were incompatible Joseph Stalin the premier of the Soviet Union wished to retain hold of Eastern Europe and establish Communist pro-soviet governments there in an effort to both expand Soviet influence and protect the Soviet Union from future invasions he also sought to bring Communist Revolution to Asia and to developing nations elsewhere in the world the United States wanted to expand its influence as well by protecting or installing democratic governments throughout the world it sought to combat the influence of the Soviet Union by forming alliances with Asian African and Latin American nations and by helping these countries to establish or expand prosperous free market economies the end of the war left the industrialized nations of Europe and Asia physically devastated and economically exhausted by years of invasion battle and bombardment with Great Britain France Germany Italy Japan and China reduced to Shadows of their former the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the last two superpowers and quickly found themselves locked in contest for military economic social technological and ideological Supremacy from isolationism to engagement the United States had long history of avoiding foreign alliances that might require the commitment of its troops abroad however in accepting the realities of the post-world War II World in which traditional powers like Great Britain or France were no longer strong enough to police the globe the United States realized that it would have to make permanent change in its foreign policy shifting from relative isolation to active engagement on assuming the office of President upon the death of Franklin Roosevelt Harry Truman was already troubled by Soviet actions in Europe he disliked the concessions made by Roosevelt at Yalta which had allowed the Soviet Union to install communist government in Poland at the Potsdam Conference held from July 17 to August 2 1945 Truman also opposed Stalin's plans to demand large reparations from Germany he feared the burden that this would impose on Germany might lead to another cycle of German rearmament and aggression fear based on that nation's development after World War although the United States and the Soviet Union did finally reach an agreement at potam this was the final occasion on which they cooperated for quite some time each remained convinced that its own economic and political systems were superior to the others and the two superpowers quickly found themselves drawn into conflict the decades long struggle between them for technological and ideological Supremacy became known as the Cold War War so-called because it did not include direct military confrontation between Soviet and US troops the Cold War was fought with variety of other weapons Espionage and surveillance political assassinations propaganda and the formation of alliances with other nations it also became an arms race as both countries competed to build the greatest stockpile of nuclear weapons and also competed for influence in poorer Nations supporting opposite sides in wars in some of those Nations such as Korea and Vietnam containment abroad in February 1946 George Kennan state department official stationed at the US Embassy in Moscow sent an 8000w message to Washington DC in what became known as The Long Telegram Kennan maintained that Soviet leaders believed that the only way to protect the Soviet Union was to destroy rival Nations and their influence over weaker Nations according to Kenan the Soviet Union was not so much revolutionary regime as totalitarian bureaucracy that was unable to accept the prospect of peaceful coexistence of the United States and itself he advised that the best way to thwart Soviet plans for the world was to contain Soviet influence primarily through economic policy to those places where it already existed and prevent its political expansion into new areas this strategy which came to be known as the policy of containment formed the basis for US foreign policy and Military decisionmaking for more than 30 years as Communist governments came to power elsewhere in the world American policy makers extended their strategy of containment to what became known as the Domino Theory under the Eisenhower Administration neighbors to communist Nations so was the Assumption were likely to succumb to the same allegedly dangerous and infectious ideology like dominoes toppling one another entire regions would eventually be controlled by the Soviets the demand for anti-communist containment appeared as early as March 1946 in speech by Winston Churchill in which he referred to an iron curtain that divided Europe into the free West and the Communist East controlled by the Soviet Union the commitment to containing Soviet expansion made necessary the ability to mount strong military offense and defense in pursuit of this goal the US military was reorganized under the National Security Act of 1947 this act streamlined the government in matters of security by creating the National Security Council and establishing the Central Intelligence Agency CIA to conduct surveillance and Espionage in foreign Nations it also created the department of the Air Force which was combined with the Departments of the Army and Navy in 1949 to form one Department of Defense the Truman Doctrine in Europe the end of World War II witnessed the rise of number of internal struggles for control of countries that had been occupied by Nazi Germany Great Britain occupied Greece as the Nazi regime there collapsed the British aided the authoritarian government of Greece in its battles against Greek Communists in March 1947 Great Britain announced that it could no longer afford the cost of supporting government military activities and withdrew from participation in the Greek Civil War stepping into this power vacuum the United States announced the Truman Doctrine which offered support to Greece and Turkey in the form of financial assistance weaponry and troops to help train their militaries and bolster their governments against communism eventually the program was expanded to include any State trying to withstand communist takeover the Truman Doctrine thus became Hallmark of US Cold War policy defining American the Truman Doctrine in 1947 Great Britain which had assumed responsibility for the disarming of German troops in Greece at the end of World War II could no longer afford to provide financial support for the authoritarian Greek government which was attempting to win civil war against Greek leftist Rebels President Truman unwilling to allow communist government to come to power there requested Congress to provide funds for the government of Greece to continue its fight against the rebels Truman also requested aid for the government of turkey to fight the forces of Communism in that country he said at the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choose between alternative ways of life the choice is too often not free one should we fail to Aid Greece and Turkey in this fateful hour the effect will be far-reaching to the West as well as to the east the seeds of totalitarian regimes are nurtured by misery and want they spread and grow in the evil soil of poverty and strife they reach their full growth when the hope of people for better life has died we must keep that hope alive the free peoples of the world look to us for support in maintaining their freedoms if we falter in our leadership we may endanger the Peace of the world and we shall surely endanger the welfare of our own Nation great responsibilities have been placed upon us by the Swift movement of events am confident that the Congress will face these responsibility squarely what role is Truman suggesting that the United States assume in the postwar world does the United States still assume this role the Marshall Plan by 1946 the American economy was growing significantly at the same time the economic situation in Europe was disastrous the war had turned much of Western Europe into battlefield and the rebuilding of factories public transportation systems and power stations progressed exceedingly slowly starvation loomed as real possibility for many as result of these conditions communism was making significant inroads in both Italy and France these concerns LED Truman along with Secretary of State George Marshall to propose to Congress the European recovery program popularly known as the Marshall Plan between its implementation in April 1948 and its termination in 1951 this program gave $1 13 billion in economic aid to European nations Truman's motivation was economic and political as well as humanitarian the plan stipulated that the European nations had to work together in order to receive Aid thus enforcing Unity through enticement while seeking to undercut the political popularity of French and Italian Communists and dissuading moderates from forming Coalition governments with them likewise much of the money had to be spent on American Goods boosting the post-war economy of the United States as well as the American cultural presence in Europe Stalin regarded the program as form of bribery the Soviet Union refused to accept aid from the Marshall Plan even though it could have done so and forbade the Communist States of Eastern Europe to accept us funds as well those states that did accept Aid began to experience an economic recovery my story George Marshall and the Nobel Peace Prize the youngest child of Pennsylvania businessman and Democrat George Marshall chose military career he attended the Virginia Military Institute was veteran of World War and spent the rest of his life either in the military or otherwise in the service of his country including as President Truman's Secretary of State he was awarded the nobbel Peace Prize in 1953 the only Soldier to ever receive that honor below is an excerpt of his remarks as he accepted the award there has been considerable comment over the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize to soldier am afraid this does not seem as remarkable to me as it quite evidently appears to others know great deal of the horrors and tragedies of War today as chairman of the American Battle Monuments commission it is my duty to supervise the construction and maintenance of military cemeteries in many countries overseas particularly in Western Europe the cost of war in human lives is constantly spread before me written neatly in many ledgers whose columns or gravestones am deeply moved to find some means or method of avoiding another Calamity of War almost daily hear from the wives or mothers or families of the Fallen the tragedy of the aftermath is almost constantly before me share with you an active concern for some practical method for avoiding War very strong military posture is vitally necessary today how long it must continue am not prepared to estimate but am sure that it is too narrow basis on which to build Dependable long enduring peace the guarantee for long continued pece will depend on other factors in addition to moderated military strength and no less important perhaps the most important single Factor will be spiritual regeneration to develop Good Will faith and understanding among nations economic factors will undoubtedly play an important part agreements to secure balance of power however disagreeable they may seem must likewise be considered and with all these there must be wisdom and the will to act on that wisdom what steps did Marshall recommend be taken to maintain lasting peace to what extent have today's Nations heeded his advice showdown in Europe the lack of consensus with the Soviets on the future of Germany led the United States Great Britain and France to support joining their respective occupation zones into single independent state in December 1946 they took steps to do so but the Soviet Union did not wish the Western zones of the country to unify under democratic Pro capitalist government the Soviet Union also feared the possibility of unified West Berlin located entirely within the Soviet sector 3 days after the Western allies authorized the introduction of new currency in Western Germany the Deutsche Mark Stalin ordered all land and water routes to the Western zones of the city Berlin to be cut off in June 1948 hoping to starve the western parts of the city into submission the Berlin blockade was also test of the emerging US policy of containment unwilling to abandon Berlin the United States Great Britain and France began to deliver all needed supplies to West Berlin by air in April 1949 the three countries joined Canada and eight Western European nations to form the north at attic Treaty Organization an alliance pledging its members to Mutual defense in the event of attack on May 12 1942 year and approximately 2 million tons of supplies later the Soviets admitted defeat and ended the blockade of Berlin on May 23rd the Federal Republic of Germany consisting of the unified Western zones and commonly referred to as West Germany was formed the Soviets responded by creating the German Democratic Republic or East Germany in October 1949 containment at home in 1949 two incidents severely disrupted American confidence in the ability of the United States to contain the spread of Communism and limit Soviet power in the world First on August 29th 1949 the Soviet Union explod loaded its first atomic bomb no longer did the United States have monopoly on nuclear power few months later on October 1st 1949 Chinese Communist party leader ma Zedong announced the Triumph of the Chinese Communists over their nationalist foes in civil war that had been raging since 1927 the nationalist forces under their leader Chiang kayek departed for Taiwan in December 194 9 immediately there were suspicions that spies had passed bomb making secrets to the Soviets and that communist sympathizers in the US state department had hidden information that might have enabled the United States to ward off the Communist victory in China indeed in February 1950 Wisconsin senator Joseph McCarthy republican charged in speech that the state department was filled with Communists also in 1950 the imprisonment in Great Britain of klous fuks german-born physicist who had worked on the Manhattan Project and was then convicted of passing nuclear secrets to the Soviets increased American fears information given by fukes to the British implicated number of American citizens as well the most infamous trial of suspected American spies was that of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg who were executed in June 195 53 despite lack of evidence against them several decades later evidence was found that Julius but not ethal had in fact given information to the Soviet Union fears that Communists within the United States were jeopardizing the country's security had existed even before the victory of Mao Zong and the arrest and conviction of the atomic spies Roosevelt's New Deal and Truman's Fair Deal were often criticized as socialist which many mistakenly associated with Communism and Democrats were often branded Communists by Republicans in response on March 21st 1947 Truman signed executive order 9835 which provided the Federal Bureau of Investigation with broad powers to investigate federal employees and identify potential security risks State and Municipal governments instituted their own loyalty boards to find and dismiss potentially disloyal workers in addition to loyalty review boards the house committee on unamerican activities HUAC was established in 1938 to investigate claims of disloyalty and subversive activities among private citizens it directed much of its attention to rooting out suspected Communists in business Academia and the media huak was particularly interested in Hollywood because it feared that communist sympathizers might use Motion Pictures as pro- Soviet propaganda Witnesses were subpoenaed and required to testify before the committee refusal could result in imprisonment those who invoked Fifth Amendment protections or were otherwise suspected of communist sympathies often lost their jobs or found themselves on blacklist which prevented them from securing employment no notable artists who were blacklisted in the 1940s and 1950s include composer Leonard Bernstein novelist dashel Hammet playwright and screenwriter Lillian Helman actor and singer Paul Robson and musician Arty Shaw to the trenches again just as the US government feared the possibility of communist infiltration of the United States so too was it alert for signs that communist IST forces were on the move elsewhere the Soviet Union had been granted control of the northern half of the Korean Peninsula at the end of World War II and the United States had control of the Southern portion the Soviets displayed little interest in extending its power into South Korea and Stalin did not wish to risk confrontation with the United States over Korea North Korea's leaders however wished to reunify the peninsula under communist rule in April 1950 Stalin finally gave permission to North Korea's leader Kim ilung to invade South Korea and provided the North Koreans with weapons and Military advisors on June 25th 1950 troops of the North Korean people's Democratic Army crossed the 38th parallel the border between North and South Korea the first major test of the US policy of containment in Asia had begun for the Domino Theory held that victory by North Korea might lead to further communist expansion in Asia in the virtual backyard of the United States Chief new ally in East Asia Japan the United Nations un which had been established in 1945 was quick to react on June 27 the UN Security Council denounced North Korea's actions and called upon UN members to help South Korea defeat the invading forces as permanent member of the security Council the Soviet Union could have vetoed the action but it had boycotted un meetings following the awarding of China's seat on the security Council to Taiwan instead of to Mao zedong's People's Republic of China on June 27 Truman ordered US military forces into South Korea they established defensive line on the far southern part of the Korean Peninsula near the the town of pan US lead Invasion at inchon on September 15 halted the North Korean advance and turned it into retreat as North Korean forces moved back across the 38th parallel UN forces under the command of US general Douglas MacArthur followed MacArthur's goal was not only to drive the North Korean army out of South Korea but to destroy communist North Korea as well at this stage he had the support of president Truman however as UN forces approached the yalu river the border between China and North Korea MacArthur's and Truman's objectives diverged Chinese Premier zuu eni who had provided supplies and Military advisers for North Korea before the conflict began sent troops into battle to support North Korea and caught US troops by surprise following costly Retreat from North Korea's chosen Reservoir swis Swift advance of Chinese and North Korean forces and another invasion of Soul MacArthur urged Truman to deploy nuclear weapons against China Truman however did not wish to risk broader war in Asia MacArthur criticized Truman's decision and voiced his disagreement in letter to republican congressman who subsequently allowed the letter to become public in April 1951 Truman accused MacArthur of insubordination and relieved him of his command The Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed calling the escalation MacArthur had called for the wrong War at the wrong place at the wrong time and with The Wrong Enemy nonetheless the public gave MacArthur hero's welcome in New York with the largest ticker tape parade in the nation's history by July 1951 the UN forces had recovered from the setbacks earlier in the year and pushed North Korean and Chinese forces back across the 38th parallel and peace talks began however combat raged on for more than two additional years the primary source of contention was the fate of prisoners of war the Chinese and North Koreans insisted that their prisoners be returned to them but many of these men did not wish to be repatriated finally an Armistice agreement was signed on July 27th 1953 border between North and South Korea one quite close close to the original 38th parallel line was agreed upon demilitarized zone between the two Nations was established and both sides agreed that prisoners of War would be allowed to choose whether to be returned to their homelands 5 million people died in the 3-year conflict of these around 36,500 were US soldiers majority were Korean civilians as the war in Korea came to an end so did one of the the most frightening anti-communist campaigns in the United States after charging the US state department with harboring Communists senator Joseph McCarthy had continued to make similar accusations against other government agencies prominent Republicans like Senator Robert Taft and Congressman Richard Nixon regarded McCarthy as an asset who targeted Democratic politicians and they supported his actions in 1953 as chair of the senate committee on government operations McCarthy investigated The Voice of America which Broadcast News and pro- US propaganda to foreign countries and the state Department's overseas libraries after an aborted effort to investigate Protestant clergy McCarthy turned his attention to the US Army this proved to be the end of the Senator's political career from April to June 195 4 the Army McCarthy hearings were televised and the American public able to witness his use of intimidation and inuendo firsthand rejected McCarthy's approach to rooting out communism in the United States in December 1954 the US Senate officially condemned his actions with censure ending his prospects for political leadership one particularly heinous aspect of the hunt for Communists in the United States likened by playwright Arthur Miller to the witch hunts of old was its effort to root out gay men and lesbians employed by the government many anti-communists including McCarthy believed that gay men referred to by Senator Everett durksen as lavender Lads were morally weak and thus were particularly likely to betray their country many also believed that lesbians and gay men were prone to being blackmailed by Soviet agents because of their sexual orientation which at the time was regarded by psychiatrists as form of mental illness 28.3 the American dream learning objectives by the end of this section you will be able to describe president Dwight Eisenhower's domestic and foreign policies discuss gender roles in the 1950s discuss the growth of the suburbs and the effect effective suburbanization on American society against the backdrop of the Cold War Americans dedicated themselves to building peaceful and prosperous Society after the deprivation and instability of the Great Depression and World War II Dwight Eisenhower the general who led the United States to Victory in Europe in 1945 proved to be the perfect president for the new era lacking strong conservative positions he steered middle path between conservatism and liberalism and presided over peacetime decade of economic growth and social conformity in foreign affairs Eisenhower's New Look policy simultaneously expanded the nation's nuclear Arsenal and prevented the expansion of the defense budget for conventional forces we like Ike after Harry Truman declined to run again for the presidency the election of 1952 emerged as contest between the Democratic nominee Illinois governor adly Stevenson and Republican Dwight Eisenhower who had directed American forces in Europe during World War II Eisenhower campaigned largely on promise to end the war in Korea conflict the public had grown weary of fighting he also vowed to fight communism both at home and abroad commitment he demonstrated by by choosing as his running mate Richard Nixon congressman who had made name for himself by pursuing Communists notably former State Department employee and suspected Soviet agent algar his in 1952 Eisenhower supporters enthusiastically proclaimed we like Ike and Eisenhower defeated Stevenson by winning 54% of the popular vote and 87% of the electoral vote when he assumed office in 1953 Eisenhower employed leadership style he had developed during his years of military service he was calm and willing to delegate Authority regarding domestic affairs to his cabinet members allowing him to focus his own efforts on foreign policy unlike many earlier presidents such as Harry Truman Eisenhower was largely nonpartisan and consistently sought middle ground between liberalism and conservatism he strove to balance the federal budget which appealed to conservative Republicans but retained much of the new deal and even expanded Social Security he maintained high levels of defense spending but in his farewell speech in 1961 warned about the growth of the military-industrial complex The Matrix of relationships between officials in the Department of Defense and Executives in the defense industry who all benefited from increasing in defense spending he disliked the tactics of Joseph McCarthy but did not oppose him directly preferring to above the fry he saw himself as leader called upon to do his best for his country not as politician engaged in contest for advantage over rivals in keeping with his goal of balanced budget Eisenhower switched the emphasis in defense from larger conventional forces to Greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons his new look strategy embraced nuclear massive retaliation plan for nuclear response to first Soviet strike so devastating that the attackers would not be able to respond some labeled this approach mutually assured destruction or mad part of preparing for possible war with the Soviet Union was informing the American public what to do in the event of nuclear attack the government provided instructions for building and equipping bomb shelters in the basement or backyard and some cities constructed Municipal shelters schools purchased dog tags to help identify students in the aftermath of an attack and showed children instructional films telling them what to do if atomic bombs were dropped on the city where they lived government and Industry allocated enormous amounts of money to the research and development of more powerful weapons this investment generated rapid strides in missile technology as well as increasingly sensitive radar computers that could react more quickly than humans and thereby shoot down speeding missiles were also investigated many scientists on both sides of the Cold War including captured Germans such as rocket engineer verer Von Brown worked on these devices an early success for the West came in 1950 When Alan Turing British math ician who had broken Germany's Enigma code during World War II created machine that mimicked human thought his discoveries LED scientists to consider the possibility of developing true artificial intelligence however the United States often feared that the Soviets were making greater strides in developing technology with potential military applications this was especially true following the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik the first man-made satellite in October 1957 in September 1958 Congress passed the National Defense Education Act which pumped over $775 million into educational programs over four years especially those programs that focused on math and science Congressional Appropriations to the National Science Foundation also increased by $100 million in single year from $34 million in 1958 to $134 million in 1959 one consequence of this increased funding was the growth of science and engineering programs at American universities in the Diplomatic sphere Eisenhower pushed Secretary of State John Foster Dulles to take firmer stance against the Soviets to reassure European allies of continued American Support at the same time keenly sensing that the stalemate in Korea had cost Trum in his popularity Eisenhower worked to avoid being drawn into Foreign Wars thus when the French found themselves fighting Vietnamese Communists for control of France's former colony of Indochina Eisenhower provided money but not troops likewise the United States took no steps when Hungary attempted to break away from Soviet domination in 1956 the United States also refused to be drawn in when Great Britain France and Israel invaded the Suez Canal Zone following Egypt's nationalization of the canal in 1956 indeed Eisenhower wishing to avoid conflict with the Soviet Union threatened to impose economic sanctions on the invading countries if they did not withdraw Americana guide for surviving nuclear war to prepare its citizens for the possibility of nuclear war in 1950 the US government published and distributed informative pamphlets such as guide for surviving nuclear war excerpted here just like firebombs and ordinary High explosives Atomic weapons cause most of their death and damage by blast and heat so first let's look at few things you can do to escape these two dangers even if you have only second's warning there is one important thing you can do to lessen your chances of injury by blast fall flat on your face more than half of all wounds are the result of being bodily tossed about or being struck by Falling and flying objects if you lie down flat you are least likely to be thrown about if you have time to pick good spot there is less chance of you're being struck by flying glass and other things if you are inside building the best place to flatten out is close against the cellar wall if you haven't time to get down there lie down along an inside wall or duck under bed or table if caught out of doors either drop down alongside the base of good substantial building avoid flimsy wooden ones likely to be blown over on top of you or else jump in any handy ditch or gutter when you fall flat to protect yourself from bombing don't look up to see what is coming even during the daylight hours The Flash from bursting bomb can cause several moments of blindness if you're facing that way to prevent it bury your face in your arms and hold it there for 10 to 12 seconds after the explosion if you work in the open always wear fulllength loose-fitting light colored clothes in time of emergency never go around with your sleeves rolled up always wear hat the brim could save you serious face burn what do you think was the purpose of these directions do you think they could actually help people survive an atomic bomb blast if not why publish such booklets suburbanization although the Eisenhower years were marked by fear of the Soviet Union and its military might they were also time of peace and prosperity even as many Americans remained Meed in poverty many others with limited economic opportunities like African-Americans or union workers were better off financially in the 1950s and Rose into the ranks of the middle class wishing to build the secure life that the Great Depression had deprived their parents of young men and women married in record numbers and purchased homes where they could start families of their own in 1940 the rate of home ownership in the United States was 43.6% by 1960 it was almost 62% many of these newly purchased homes had been built in the new Suburban areas that began to encircle American cities after the war although middleclass families had begun to move to the suburbs beginning in the 19th century Suburban growth accelerated rapidly after World War II several factors contributed to this development during World War II the United States had suffered from housing shortage especially in cities with shipyards or large defense plants now that the war was over real estate developers and contractors rushed to alleviate the scarcity unused land on the fringes of American cities provided the perfect place for new housing which attracted not only the middle class which had long sought homes outside the crowded cities but also blue collar workers who took advantage of the lowest mortgages offered by the GI Bill an additional Factor was the use of pre-fabricated construction techniques pioneered during World War II which allowed houses complete with plumbing electrical wiring and appliances to be built and painted in day employing these methods developers built Acres of inexpensive track housing throughout the country one of the first developers to take advantage of this method was William levit who purchased Farmland in Nassau County Long Island in 1947 and built thousands of pre-fabricated houses the new community was named levitown Levitz houses cost only $88,000 and could be bought with little or no down payment the first day they were offered for sale more than 1,000 were purchased levit went on to build similar developments also called levitown in New Jersey and Pennsylvania as developers around the country rushed to emulate him the name levitown became synonymous with Suburban track housing in which entire neighborhoods were built to either single plan or mere handful of design the houses were so similar that workers told of coming home late at night and walking into the wrong one levitown homes were similar in other ways as well most were owned by white families levit used restrictive language in his agreements with potential homeowners to ensure that only white people would live in his communities in the decade between 1950 and 1960 the suburbs grew by 46% the transition from from Urban to Suburban life exerted profound effects on both the economy and Society for example 15 of the largest US cities saw their tax bases shrink significantly in the post-war period and the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives shifted to the suburbs and away from urban areas the development of the suburbs also increased Reliance on the automobile for transportation Suburban men drove to to work in nearby cities or when possible were driven to Commuter Rail stations by their wives in the early years of suburban development before schools parks and supermarkets were built access to an automobile was crucial and the pressure on families to purchase second one was strong as families rushed to purchase them the annual production of Passenger cars leaped from 2.2 million to 8 million between 1946 and 1955 and by 1960 about 20% of suburban families owned two cars the growing number of cars on the road changed consumption patterns and Drive-In and driveth through convenience stores restaurants and movie theaters began to dot the landscape the first McDonald's opened in San Bernardino California in 1954 to cater to drivers in hurry as drivers jammed highways and small streets in record numbers cities and states rushed to build additional roadways and ease congestion to help Finance these massive construction efforts states began taxing gasoline and the federal government provided hundreds of thousands of dollars for the construction of the interstate highway system the resulting construction projects designed to make it easier for suburbanites to commute to and from cities often destroyed Urban workingclass neighborhoods increased funding for Highway constru construction also left less money for public transportation making it impossible for those who could not afford automobiles to live in the suburbs the organization man as the government poured money into the defense industry and into universities that conducted research for the government the economy boomed the construction and automobile Industries employed thousands as did the industries they relied upon steel oil and gasoline refining Rubber and lumber as people moved into new homes their purchases of appliances carpeting furniture and home decorations spurred growth in other Industries the building of miles of Roads also employed thousands unemployment was low and wages for members of both the working and middle classes were high following World War II the majority of white Americans were members of the middle class based on such criteria as education income and homeownership even most bluecollar families could afford such elements of middleclass lifestyle as new cars suburban homes and regular vacations most African-Americans however were not members of the middle class in 1950 the median income for white families was $2,556 whereas for black families it was $1,233 by 1960 when the average white family earned $28,495 year black people still lagged behind at $5,784 nevertheless this represented more than 40% increase in African-American income in the space of decade while workingclass men found jobs in factories and on construction Crews those in the middle class often worked for corporations that as result of government spending had grown substantially during World War II and were still getting larger such corporations far too large to allow managers to form personal relationships with all of their subordinates valued Conformity to company rules and standards above all else in his best-selling book the organization man however William white criticized the notion that Conformity was the best path to success and self-fulfillment Conformity was still the watchword of suburban life many neighborhoods had rules mandating what types of cloth lines could be used and prohibited residents from parking their cars on the street above all conforming to societal Norms meant marrying young and having children in the postor War II period marriage rates Rose the average age at first marri marriage dropped to 23 for men and 20 for women between 1946 and 1964 married couples also gave birth to the largest generation in US history to date this baby boom resulted in the cohort known as the Baby Boomers Conformity also required that the wives of both working and middleclass Men stay home and raise children instead of working for wages outside the home most conformed to this Norm at least while their children were young nevertheless 40% of women with young children and half of women with older children sought at least part-time employment they did so partly out of necessity and partly to pay for the new elements of The Good Life Second cars vacations and college education for their children the children born during the baby boom were members of more privileged generation than their parents had been entire Industries sprang up to cater to their need for clothing toys Games books and breakfast serials for the first time in US history attending high school was an experience shared by the majority regardless of race or region as the Baby Boomers grew into adolescence marketers realized that they not only controlled large amounts of disposable income earned at part-time jobs but they exerted great deal of influence over their parents purchases as well Madison Avenue began to appeal to teenage interests boys yearned for cars and girls of all ethnicities wanted boyfriends who had them new fashion magazines for adolescent girls such as 17 advertised the latest clothing and cosmetics and teen romance magazines like copper romance publication for young African-American women filled drugstore racks the music and movie Industries also altered their products to appeal to affluent adolescents who were growing tired of Parental constraints 28.4 popular culture and mass media learning objectives by the end of this section you will be able to describe Americans different responses to rock and roll music discuss the way contemporary movies and television reflected post-war American society with greater generational Consciousness than previous generations the Baby Boomers sought to Define and redefine their identities in numerous ways music especially Rock and role reflected their desire to rebel against adult Authority other forms of popular culture such as movies and television sought to entertain while reinforcing values such as religious Faith patriotism and Conformity to societal norms Rocking Around the Clock in the 1940s various evolutions of uptempo Blues Jazz and Country Music gave way to rhythm and blues genre predominantly created by black artists and marketed to Black audiences sister Rosetta Tharp was widely credited with delivering the first true rock and roll performance with strange things happening every day and was major influence on artists of the time several years Jackie Branson singing with Ike Turner's band released Rocket 88 which became chart topper and is another Contender for first rock and roll recording aided by new technologies such as the 45 or single record the Jukebox and the solid body electric guitar and and rock and roll artists soon gained the attention and purchasing power of young white people rock and roll music celebrated themes such as young love and freedom from the oppression of middleclass society it quickly grew in favor among American teens thanks largely to the efforts of disc jockey Alan freed who named and popularized the music by playing it on the radio in Cleveland where he also organized the first Rock and Roll concert and later in New York the theme of rebellion against Authority present in many rock and roll songs appealed to teens white artists began covering popular songs by black artists and following in their Footsteps in 1954 Bill Haley and his comets provided youth with an Anthem for their Rebellion Rock Around the Clock the song used in the 1955 movie Blackboard Jungle about white teacher at troubled Inner City High School seemed to be calling for teens to declare their independence from adult control Haley Illustrated how white artists could take musical motifs from the African-American community and Achieve mainstream success teen heartthrob Elvis Presley Rose to stardom doing the same thus besides encouraging feeling of youthful Rebellion rock and roll also began to tear down color barriers as white youths sought out African-American musicians such as Chuck Barry and Little Richard while youth found an outlet for their feelings and concerns parents were much less enthused about rock and roll and the values it seemed to promote many regarded the music as threat to American values when Elvis Presley appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show popular television variety program the camera deliberately focused on his torso and did not show his swiveling hips or legs shaking in time to the music despite adults dislike of the genre or perhaps because of it more than 68% of the music played on the radio in 1956 was rock and roll Hollywood on the defensive at first Hollywood encountered difficulties in adjusting to the postor War II environment although domestic audiences reached record high in 1946 and the war's end meant expanding International markets too the groundwork for the eventual dismantling of the traditional Studio system was laid in 1948 with landmark decision by the US Supreme Court previously film studios had owned their own movie theater chains in which they exhibited the films they produced however in United States versus Paramount Pictures Inc this vertical integration of the industry the complete control by one firm of the production distribution and exhibition of Motion Pictures was deemed violent ation of antitrust laws the huak hearings also targeted Hollywood when 11 unfriendly Witnesses were called to testify before Congress about communism in the film industry in October 1947 only playwright beol bre answered questions the other 10 who refused to testify were cited for contempt of congress on November 24 the next day film Executives declared that the so-called Hollywood 10 would no longer be employed in the industry until they had sworn they were not Communists eventually more than 300 actors screenwriters directors musicians and other entertainment professionals were placed on the industry Blacklist some never worked in Hollywood again others directed films or wrote screenplays under assumed names Hollywood reacted aggressively to these various challenges filmmakers tried new techniques like cinemascope and cinama which allowed movies to be shown on large screens and in 3D audiences were drawn to movies not because of gimmicks however but because of the stories they told dramas and romantic comedies continued to be popular fair for adults and to appeal to teens Studios produced large numbers of horror films and movies starring music Idols such as Elvis many films took espionage timely topic as their subject matter and science fiction hits such as Invasion of the Body Snatchers about small town whose inhabitants fall prey to space aliens played on audience fears of both communist Invasion and nuclear technology the Triumph of Television by far the greatest challenge to Hollywood however came from the relatively new medium of Television although the technology had been developed in the late 1920s through much of the 1940s only fairly small audience of the wealthy had access to it as result programming was limited with the postor War II economic boom all this changed in 1950 there were just under 4 million households with television set or 9% of all us households 5 years later that number had grown to over 30 million or nearly 65% of all us hous households various types of programs were broadcast on the handful of major networks situation comedies variety programs game shows soap operas talk shows medical dramas Adventure series cartoons and police procedurals many comedies presented an idealized image of white Suburban Family Life happy housewife mothers wise fathers and mischievous but not dangerously rebellious children were constants on shows like Leave it to Beaver and Father Knows Best in the late 1950s these shows also reinforced certain perspectives on the values of individualism and family values that came to be redefined as American in opposition to alleged communist collectivism westerns which stressed unity in the face of danger and the ability to survive in hostile environments were popular too programming for children began to emerge with shows such as Captain Kangaroo Romper Room and the Mickey Mouse Club designed to appeal to members of the baby boom 28.5 the African-American struggle for civil rights learning objectives by the end of this section you will be able to explain how presidents Truman and Eisenhower addressed civil rights issues discuss efforts by African-Americans to end discrimination and segregation describe southern white people's response to the civil rights movement in the aftermath of World War II African-Americans began to mount organized resistance to racially discriminatory policies enforce throughout much of the United States in the South they used combination of legal challenges and Grassroots activism to begin dismantling the racial segregation that had stood for nearly century following the end of reconstruction Community activists and civil rights leaders targeted racially discriminatory housing practices segregated transportation and legal requirements that African-Americans and white people be educated separately while many of these challenges were successful life did not necessarily improve for African-Americans hostile white people fought these changes in any way they could including by resorting to violence early victories during World War II many African-Americans had supported the double campaign which called on them to defeat foreign enemies while simultaneously fighting against segregation and discrimination at home after World War II ended many returned home to discover that despite their sacrifices the United States was not willing to extend them any greater rights than they had enjoyed before the war particularly rankling was the fact that although African-American veterans were legally entitled to draw benefits under the GI Bill discriminatory practices prevented them from doing so for example many banks would not give them mortgages if they wish to buy homes in predominantly African-American neighborhoods which banks often considered too risky an investment however African-Americans who attempted to purchase homes in white neighborhoods often found themselves unable to do so because of real estate covenants that prevented owners from selling their property to black people indeed when black family purchased levitown house in 1957 they were subjected to harassment and threats of violence the post-war era however saw African-Americans make greater use of the courts to defend their rights in 1944 an African-American woman Irene Morgan was arrested in Virginia for refusing to give up her seat on an interstate bus and sued to have her conviction overturned in Morgan versus the Commonwealth of Virginia in 1946 the US Supreme Court ruled that the conviction should be overturned because it violated the interstate commerce clause of the Constitution this Victory emboldened some civil rights activists to launch the Journey of reconciliation bus trip taken by eight African-American men and eight white men through the states of the upper South to test the South's enforcement of the Morgan decision other victories followed in 1948 in Shelly versus Kramer the US Supreme Court held that courts could not enforce real estate covenants that restricted the purchase or sale of property based on race in 1950 the NAACP brought case before the US Supreme Court that they hoped would help to undermine the concept of separate but equal as espoused in the 1896 decision in Pie versus Ferguson which gave legal sanction to segregated school systems sweat versus painer was case brought by heeman Marian sweat who sued the University of Texas for denying him admission to its law school because state law prohibited integrated education Texas attempted to form separate law school for african-amer Americans only but in its decision on the case the US Supreme Court rejected this solution holding that the separate School provided neither equal facilities nor intangibles such as the ability to form relationships with other future lawyers that professional school should provide not all efforts to enact desegregation required the use of the courts however on April 15th 1947 Jackie Robinson started for the Brooklyn Dodgers playing first base he was the first African-American to play baseball in the National League breaking the color barrier although African-Americans had their own baseball teams in the Negro Leagues Robinson opened the gates for them to play in direct competition with white players in the major leagues other African-American athletes also began to challenge the segregation of American Sports at the 1948 Summer Olympics Alice Coachman and African-American was the only American woman to take gold medal in the games these changes while symbolically significant were mere cracks in the wall of segregation desegregation and integration until 1954 racial segregation in education was not only legal but was required in 17 States and permissible in several others utilizing evidence provided in sociological studies conducted by Kenneth Clark and gunar Myrtle however thurg Good Marshall then Chief counsel for the nouble ACP successfully argued The Landmark case Brown versus Board of Education of Topeka Kansas before the US Supreme Court led by Chief Justice Earl Warren Marshall showed that the practice of segregation in public schools made African-American students feel inferior even if the facilities provided were equal in nature the court noted in its decision the very fact that some students were separated from others on the basis of their race made segregation unconstitutional Pie versus Ferguson had been overturned the challenge now was to integrate schools year later the US Supreme Court ordered Southern school systems to begin desegregation with all deliberate speed some school districts voluntarily integrated their schools for many other districts however deliberate speed was very very slow it soon became clear that enforcing Brown versus the Board of Education would require presidential intervention Eisenhower did not agree with the US Supreme Court's decision and did not wish to force southern states to integrate their schools however as president he was responsible for doing so in 1957 Central High School in Little Rock Arkansas saw was forced to accept its first nine African-American students who became known as The Little Rock Nine in response Arkansas governor Orville Faus called out the State National Guard to prevent the students from attending classes the soldiers turned away the first student to attempt entry Elizabeth eford leaving the 15-year-old to be followed and threatened by dozens of white adults subsequent attempt by the nine students to attend school resulted in mob violence Eisenhower then placed the Arkansas National Guard under Federal control and sent the US Army's 101st Airborne unit to escort the students to and from school as well as from class to class this was the first time since the end of reconstruction that federal troops once more protected the rights of African-Americans in the South throughout the course of the school year the Little Rock were insulted harassed and physically assaulted nevertheless they returned to school each day at the end of the school year the first African-American student graduated from Central High at the beginning of the 1958 to 1959 school year Orville Faus ordered all little Rocks public schools closed in the opinion of white segregationists keeping all students out of school was preferable to having them attend integrated School schools in 1959 the US Supreme Court ruled that the school had to be reopened and that the process of desegregation had to proceed School segregation was not only southern issue New York city became segregation flasho due to significant deficiencies in resources teacher quality and services offered to schools serving black students in 1957 parent and activist May was the leader of what became known as the Harlem N9 group of nine mothers who filed suit and kept their children out of school based on inadequate and unequal education mallerie and the other mothers asked for an open transfer policy that allowed them to send their children to schools outside of their District City officials and local media fought back by declaring mallerie and her group to be unfit parents but the Harlem 9 eventually won the right to transfer their children most importantly they forced the local court and the New York City Board of Education to declare that segregation still existed in New York City Schools defining American th Good Marshall on fighting racism as law student in 1933 th Good Marshall was recruited by his mentor Charles Hamilton Houston to assist in gathering information for the defense of black man in Virginia accused of killing two white women his continued close association with Houston LED Marshall to aggressively defend black people in the court system and to use the courts as the weapon by which equal rights might be extracted from the US Constitution and white racist System Houston also suggested that it would be important to establish legal precedents regarding the py versus Ferguson ruling of separate but equal by 1938 Marshall had become Mr civil rights and formally organized the NAA cp's legal defense and education Fund in 1940 to Garner the resources to take on cases to break the racist justice system of America direct result of Marshall's energies and commitment was his 1940 victory in Supreme Court case Chambers versus Florida which held that confessions obtained by violence and torture were inadmissible in court of law in 1943 he won case on behalf of black parents protesting School segregation in Suburban Hillburn New York his most well-known case was Brown versus Board of Education in 1954 which held that state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students were unconstitutional later in life Marshall reflected on his career fighting racism in speech at Howard Law School in 1978 be aware of that myth that everything is going to be all right don't give in add that because it seems to me that what we need to do today is to refocus back in the 30s and 40s we could go no place but to court we knew then the court was not the final solution many of us knew the final solution would have to be politics if for no other reason politics is cheaper than lawsuits so now we have both we have our legal arm and we have our political arm let's use them both and don't listen to this myth that it can be solved by either or that it has already been solved take it from me it has not been solved when Marshall says that the problems of racism have not been solved to what was he referring white responses efforts to desegregate Public Schools led to backlash among many white people many greeted the brown decision with horror some World War II two veterans questioned how the government they had fought for could betray them in such fashion some white parents promptly withdrew their children from public schools and enrolled them in all-white private many newly created for the sole purpose of keeping white children from attending integrated schools often theseis held classes in Neighbors basements or living rooms other white Southerners turned to state legislatures or courts to solve the problem of school integration orders to integrate school districts were routinely challenged in court when the lawsuits proved unsuccessful many Southern school districts responded by closing all public schools as Orville Faus had done after Central High School was integrated one County in Virginia closed its public schools for 5 years rather than see them integrated besides suing school districts many Southern segreg aists filed lawsuits against the NAACP trying to bankrupt the organization many national politicians supported the segregationist efforts in 1956 101 members of Congress signed the southern Manifesto in which they accused the US Supreme Court of misusing its power and violating the principle of states rights which maintained that states had rights equal to those of the federal government unfortunately many white Southern racists frightened by challenges to the social order responded with violence when little rocks Central High School desegregated an Irate Klux Clansman from neighboring Community sent letter to the members of the City School Board in which he denounced them as Communists and threatened to kill them white rage sometimes erupted into murder in August 1955 both white and black Americans were shoted Ed by the brutality of the murder of EMT till till 14-year-old boy from Chicago had been vacationing with relatives in Mississippi while visiting white-owned store he had made remark to the white woman behind the counter few days later the husband and brother-in-law of the woman came to the home of Till's relatives in the middle of the night and abducted the boy Till's beaten and mutilated body was found in nearby River 3 Days Later Till's mother insisted on an open casket funeral she wished to use her son's body to reveal the brutality of Southern racism the murder of child who had been guilty of no more than casual remark captured the nation's attention as did the acquittal of the two men who admitted killing him the Montgomery Bus Boycott one of those inspired by Till's death was Rosa Parks an NAACP member from Montgomery Alabama who became the face of the 1955 to 1956 Montgomery Bus Boycott city ordinances in Montgomery segregated the city's buses forcing African-American passengers to ride in the back section they had to enter through the rear of the bus could not share seats with white passengers and if the front of the bus was full and white passenger requested an African-American seat had to to relinquish their place to the white Rider the bus company also refused to hire African-American drivers even though most of the people who rode the buses were black on December 1st 1955 Rosa Parks refused to give her seat to white man and the Montgomery police arrested her after being bailed out of jail she decided to fight the laws requiring segregation in court to support her the women's political Council group of African-American female activists organized boycott of Montgomery's buses news of the boycott spread through newspaper notices and By Word of Mouth ministers rallied their congregations to support the women's political Council their efforts were successful and 40,000 African-American Riders did not take the bus on December 5th the first day of the boycott other African-American leaders within the city embraced the boycott and maintained it Beyond December 5th Rosa Park's court date among them was young Minister named Martin Luther King Jr for the next year black Montgomery residents avoided the city's buses some organized car pools others paid for rides in african-american-owned taxis whose drivers reduced their fees most walked to and from school work and church for 381 days the duration of the boycott in June 1956 an Alabama federal court found the segregation ordinance unconstitutional the city appealed but the US Supreme Court upheld the decision the city's buses were desegregated this has been US history from openstack Open Stacks textbooks and this free audiobook are covered under Creative Commons license the full text is available at www.ops.org this project was made possible by cceo the California Consortium for Equitable change in Hispanic serving institutions open education resources you can learn more about cceo by visiting the link in this episode's show notes you can find this Audi book anywhere you listen to podcasts including Spotify YouTube Apple podcasts and more instructors can even download course shell to embed these recordings in canvas courses learn more by visiting www.open audio. us did you find this audiobook helpful if so let us know by leaving comment and sharing this recording with colleague or friend